Diana M. Hechavarria

Opportunity Types, Social Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Evidence from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics

The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether there are differences in the degree of innovation as moderated by the type of opportunity pursued – found or formed – among social and non-social start-ups. The authors aim to further the discussion on opportunity types by drawing on an expansive data set, the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics I and II, to test the notion of opportunity types and their implications for innovation among social entrepreneurs. The findings suggest that social ventures are, on average, considerably more innovative than other kinds of start-ups. Furthermore, the authors find evidence which suggests that social entrepreneurs pursuing formed opportunities are less likely to be innovative.

Contextual Motivation and Growth Aspirations Among Nascent Entrepreneurs

‘‘The concept of the nascent entrepreneur captures the flavor of the chaotic and disorderly founding process’’ (Acs & Audretsch, 2003, p. 3). A nascent entrepreneur is defined as someone who initiates activities that are intended to culminate in a viable new firm (Reynolds, 1994; Davidsson, 2004; 2005). Yet, what motivates people to start a new business remains poorly understood (Shane, Locke, & Collins, 2003). Existing research indicates that there are micro-level and macrolevel factors that influence the nascent entrepreneurial process. This chapter focuses on the latter, specifically exploring the macro–micro linkages in relation to context. Consequently, this assessment contributes to the understanding of entrepreneurial phenomena by specifically identifying contextual dimensions in which to differentiate types of nascent start-ups, which in turn, will lead to more precise interpretations of why individuals enter the firm creation process. The goal of the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics I & II (PSED) is to identify how new firms come into existence through the study of nascent entrepreneurship. Two emphases have emerged from the project in order to understand the process of entrepreneurship. One centers around personal characteristics of individuals who pursue the new venture (Shaver & Scott, 1991) and the other is centered on the actual behavior initiated to establish a new firm (Gartner, 1998; Gartner, Shaver, Carter, & Reynolds). These factors focus on micro-level issues related to new firm creation. However, the firm birthing process occurs in a unique and specific environment (Reynolds, 2004). The multi-dimensional nature of entrepreneurship as a construct requires scholars to investigate not only the factors that have immediate impact on the start-up process along with those individuals who are directly involved, but also the contextual environment in which the entrepreneur operates.

Women don’t ask: an investigation of start-up financing and gender

Abstract Are women less likely to ask for help financing their businesses? This study investigates whether gender is a factor that impacts the propensity to ask for financing among nascent entrepreneurs. We also investigate if start-up helpers, who do not have an ownership share, have an impact on the likelihood of asking for financing, specifically between men and women. Our findings suggest that being female significantly decreases the probability of asking for financing and the presence of start-up helpers significantly increases the incidence of asking for financing in the nascent stage. In addition, among those who created new firms or were still in the start-up process, the number of start-up helpers exponentially increased the incidence of asking for financing among female founders. We use the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics II data, the largest, nationally representative, and longitudinal database on nascent entrepreneurs for the United States.

The entrepreneurial gender divide: Hegemonic masculinity, emphasized femininity and organizational forms

Purpose This paper aims to examine the interplay among forms of entrepreneurship and the gendered entrepreneurial divide. Using data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and the World Values Survey (WVS), the authors investigate the likelihood that females will venture in the commercial entrepreneurial ventures versus social entrepreneurial ventures. The authors draw on the theoretical concept of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity to explain gender variance in the organizational forms of commercial and social entrepreneurship. Specifically, the authors investigate whether pursuing an opportunity in a society that highly values ideologies of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity impacts the probability of venturing in either of these kinds of organizations. Design/methodology/approach To test the hypotheses, the authors use GEM data from 2009 (n = 14,399) for nascent entrepreneurs and baby businesses owners in 55 counties. They also use the WVS to measure the ideologies of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity at the country level. The authors estimate a logistic multilevel model to identify the drivers of social venturing over commercial venturing. Data are nested by countries, and the authors allow random intercepts by countries with a variance components covariance structure. Findings The findings demonstrate that there is a divide in entrepreneurial activity, as women entrepreneurs are more likely to start social ventures than commercial ventures. They also find that hegemonic masculinity decreases the incidence of social entrepreneurship, whereas emphasized femininity increases the incidence of social entrepreneurship. Moreover, the authors find evidence that women in societies with a strong view on hegemonic masculinity are less likely to pursue social organizational forms than male entrepreneurs are. Furthermore, in societies with strong views of emphasized femininity, the probability increases that female founders will pursue social organizational forms. The findings highlight the considerable impact of the gender ideologies on entrepreneurship. Research limitations/implications Although the authors use the terms “gender” and “sex” in this paper interchangeably, they recognize that these two terms are not equivalent. For the purposes of this manuscript, the authors use a gender analysis approach activity based on biological sex to investigate empirical differences in entrepreneurial. The findings suggest that women ultimately, and unintentionally, are consenting to the practices and norms that reiterate the masculinity of entrepreneurship. In this way, the patriarchal ideologies of hegemonic masculinity and masculinization of entrepreneurship ultimately leave women unable to fully take up the identity of “woman” alongside that of “entrepreneur”. Future research can build upon our findings by applying a more nuanced view of gender via constructivist approaches. Originality/value The findings empirically demonstrate the gendered nature of entrepreneurial activity, leading to specific stereotypical female social organizational forms and male commercial organizational forms. Furthermore, the authors are able to provide theoretical explanations based on hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity to understand why social entrepreneurship appeals to women.

Mother nature’s son?: The impact of gender socialization and culture on environmental venturing

Purpose Drawing on the multiplicity of context approach, this study investigates whether female entrepreneurs are more likely than male entrepreneurs to create environmentally oriented organizations. This study aims to examine how context, measured by gender socialization stereotypes and post-materialism, differentially affects the kinds of organizations entrepreneurs choose to create. Design/methodology/approach To test the hypotheses, this study utilizes Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data from 2009 (n = 17,364) for nascent entrepreneurs, baby businesses owners and established business owners in 47 counties. This study also utilizes the World Values Surveys to measure gender ideologies and post-materialist cultural values at the country level. To test the hypotheses, a logistic multi-level model is estimated to identify the drivers of environmental venturing. Data are nested by countries, and this allows random intercepts by countries with a variance components covariance structure. Findings Findings indicate that female entrepreneurs are more likely to engage in ecological venturing. Societies with high levels of post-materialist national values are significantly more likely to affect female entrepreneurs to engage in environmental ventures when compared to male entrepreneurs. Moreover, traditional gender socialization stereotypes decrease the probability of engaging in environmental entrepreneurship. Likewise, female entrepreneurs in societies with strong stereotypes regarding gender socialization will more likely engage in environmental entrepreneurship than male entrepreneurs. Research limitations/implications The present study uses a gender analysis approach to investigate empirical differences in environmental entrepreneurial activity based on biological sex. However, this research assumes that gender is the driver behind variations in ecopreneurship emphasis between the engagement of males and females in venturing activity. The findings suggest that female entrepreneurs pursuing ecological ventures are more strongly influenced by contextual factors, when compared to male entrepreneurs. Future research can build upon these findings by applying a more nuanced view of gender via constructivist approaches. Originality/value This study is one of the few to investigate ecologically oriented ventures with large-scale empirical data by utilizing a 47-country data set. As a result, it begins to open the black box of environmental entrepreneurship by investigating the role of gender, seeking to understand if men and women entrepreneurs equally engage in environmental venturing. And it responds to calls that request more research at the intersection of gender and context in terms of environmental entrepreneurship.

A Gendered Look at Entrepreneurship Ecosystems

Entrepreneurship ecosystems are attracting significant interest, both practically and academically. Despite the extolled benefits of participating in ecosystems, there is evidence that women entrepreneurs’ participation, access to resources, and outcomes in ecosystems, vary significantly from those of men. In addition, emerging theoretical ecosystem frameworks have not explored where gender might matter conceptually. This panel symposium will explore current theories, data and methods that researchers are using to study entrepreneurship ecosystems and the findings that have been generated to date. The goal of the panel is to bring together a set of researchers, each of whom uses a different perspective to examine women’s participation in ecosystems, and explore where in ecosystems gender might matter.

'Rules of Conduct'; Applying Deference and Demeanor to Understand Status Inconsistency and Role Conflict in Family Firms

Erving Goffmans analysis of everyday life interaction rituals as significant social ceremonies (Goffman, 1963:8; 1956:473, 499; 1971: 62-65) is the foundation for the propositions presented in the paper. Applying the concepts of deference and demeanor developed by Goffman (1956), this paper will explore how the “rules of conduct” in regards to managing social position within family businesses may lead to conflict as a result of status inconsistency and role conflict. Subsequently, a typology is provided in which dysfunctional conflict may be managed by family firms based on the degree of individual deference or demeanor.