Diane Foster

The effect of Lake Erie water level variations on sediment resuspension

ABSTRACT Variability in Lake Erie water levels results in variations of the fluid forces applied to the lake bed by freesurface gravity wind-waves. An increase in the bed stress may re-suspend sediment deposited years earlier. This study identifies areas of possible non-cohesive sediment mobilization in response to the forcing conditions and water levels present in Lake Erie. Observations from NOAA buoy 45005 were used to identify wave events generated by a variety of atmospheric forcing conditions. For each event, numerical predictions of significant wave height, wave period, and water level from the Great Lakes Forecasting System (GLFS) were used to characterize the wave event variability over the lake. The Shields parameter was estimated at each 2 km × 2 km grid cell with the local wave forcing as predicted by GLFS assuming an estimate of the wave-induced friction factor. In the Cleveland harbor region of the central basin, the Shields parameter was also estimated by assuming uniform wave conditions as observed by NOAA buoy 45005. The “contour of incipient motion” for both variable and uniform wave events was defined as the offshore contour where the Shields parameter exceeds the critical limit for motion. Comparisons with a radiometrically corrected image from Landsat-7 showed that the spatially varying wave events from GLFS were in qualitative agreement with the satellite observations. A sensitivity analysis of wave height, wave period, and grain size showed the contour of incipient motion to be the most sensitive to wave period. Calculations performed for record high and low water levels showed that the incipient motion of non-cohesive sediments in the relatively flat central basin to be the most sensitive to the historic hydrologic variability present in Lake Erie.

Lagrangian measurements of incipient motion in oscillatory flows

Incipient motion of coarse gravel-sized sediment was investigated under a range of oscillatory flows. This article examines the relative significance of shear stresses and pressure gradients in triggering motion, which was directly measured with electronic Smart Sediment Grains (SSGs). The data suggest that incipient motion was induced by the pressure gradients in flows with large accelerations, by the shear stresses in flows with low accelerations and greater shear, and by the combined effects in intermediate flows. A modified incipient motion criterion was evaluated accounting for the combined effects of the shear stresses and pressure gradients, which may be more widely applicable in the marine environment.

Unsteady stress partitioning and momentum transfer in the wave bottom boundary layer over movable rippled beds

Observations of the nearbed velocity field over a rippled sediment bed under asymmetric wave forcing conditions were collected using a submersible particle image velocimetry (PIV) system. To examine the role of bed form-induced dynamics in the total momentum transfer, a double-averaging technique was implemented on the two-dimensional time-dependent velocity field by means of the full momentum equation. This approach allows for direct determination of the bed form-induced stresses, i.e., stresses that arise due to the presence of bed forms, which are zero in flat bed conditions. This analysis suggests that bed form-induced stresses are closely related to the presence of coherent motions and may be partitioned from the turbulent stresses. Inferences of stress provided by a bed load transport model suggest that total momentum transfer obtained from the double-averaging technique is capable of reproducing bed form mobilization. Comparisons between the total momentum transfer and stress estimates obtained from local velocity profiles show significant variability across the ripple and suggest that an array of sensors is necessary to reproduce bed form evolution. The imbalance of momentum obtained by resolving the different terms constituting the near-bed momentum balance (i.e., acceleration deficit, stress gradient, and bed form-induced skin friction) provides an estimate of the bed form-induced pressure that is consistent with flow separation. This analysis reveals three regions in the flow: the free-stream, where all terms are relatively balanced; the near-bed, where momentum imbalance is significant during flow weakening; and below ripple crests, where bed form-induced pressure is the leading order mechanism.

Development and Evaluation of an Autonomous Sensor for the Observation of Sediment Motion

AbstractMeasurements within the mobile bed layer have been limited by previous Eulerian-based technologies. A microelectromechanical system device, called a smart sediment grain (SSG), that can measure and record Lagrangian observations of coastal sediments at incipient motion has been developed. These sensors have the potential to resolve fundamental hypotheses regarding the incipient motion of coastal sediments. Angle of repose experiments verified that the sensor enclosure has mobility characteristics similar to coarse gravel. Experiments conducted in a small oscillating flow tunnel verified that the sensors detect incipient motion under various hydrodynamic conditions. Evidence suggests the influence of pressure-gradient-induced sediment motion, contrary to the more commonly assumed bed shear stress criterion. Lagrangian measurements of rotation measured with the newly developed SSG agreed to within 5% of the rotation estimates made simultaneously with high-speed video cameras.

Incipient motion of surf zone sediments

Incipient motion experiments were conducted with natural gravel, acetate beads, and coarse-gravel-sized electronic grains called Smart Sediment Grains in a Small-Oscillatory Flow Tunnel. Measurements of fluid velocity were made using Particle Image Velocimetry. The strength of the fluid shear stresses and the pressure gradients were examined for a range of oscillatory flow conditions at the onset of motion of the sediment particles to determine which mechanism had induced particle motion. The three sediment types utilized in these experiments facilitated an assessment of the effects of sediment grain size diameter, shape, and density on incipient motion. Results suggested that the onset of sediment motion was dominated by the pressure gradients for flows with small orbital excursion amplitudes, by the shear stresses for flows with large orbital excursion amplitudes and by the combined effects for intermediate flows. The denser, angular gravel required greater free-stream accelerations to trigger sediment motion than the spherical, less dense acetate beads, and Smart Sediment Grains. A combined parameter for incipient motion that accounts for the simultaneous effects of both shear stresses and pressure gradients while depending on the static coefficient of friction and the packing concentration of the mobile bed layer was evaluated for accuracy using a range of sediment types. The results suggested that the combined parameter may be a better indicator of sediment mobilization under oscillatory flows than the typically assumed shear stress criterion.

Observations of pockmark flow structure in Belfast Bay, Maine, Part 3: implications for sediment transport

Current observations and sediment characteristics acquired within and along the rim of two pockmarks in Belfast Bay, Maine, were used to characterize periods of sediment transport and to investigate conditions favorable to the settling of suspended sediment. Hourly averaged Shields parameters determined from horizontal current velocity profiles within the center of each pockmark never exceed the critical value (approximated with the theoretical model of Dade et al. 1992). However, Shields parameters estimated at the pockmark rims periodically exceed the critical value, consistent with conditions that support the onset of sediment transport and suspension. Below the rim in the near-center of each pockmark, depth-averaged vertical velocities were less than zero (downward) 60% and 55% of the time in the northern and southern pockmarks, and were often comparable to depth-averaged horizontal velocities. Along the rim, depth-averaged vertical velocities over the lower 8 m of the water column were primarily downward but much less than depth-averaged horizontal velocities indicating that suspended sediment may be moved to distant locations. Maximum grain sizes capable of remaining in suspension under terminal settling flow conditions (ranging 10–170 μm) were typically much greater than the observed median grain diameter (about 7 μm) at the bed. During upwelling flow within the pockmarks, and in the absence of flocculation, suspended sediment would not settle. The greater frequency of predicted periods of sediment transport along the rim of the southern pockmark is consistent with pockmark morphology in Belfast Bay, which transitions from more spherical to more elongated toward the south, suggesting near-bed sediment transport may contribute to post-formation pockmark evolution during typical conditions in Belfast Bay.

Observations of pockmark flow structure in Belfast Bay, Maine, Part 2: evidence for cavity flow

Pockmark flow circulation patterns were investigated through current measurements along the rim and center of two pockmarks in Belfast Bay, Maine. Observed time-varying current profiles have a complex vertical and directional structure that rotates significantly with depth and is strongly dependent on the phase of the tide. Observations of the vertical profiles of horizontal velocities in relation to relative geometric parameters of the pockmark are consistent with circulation patterns described qualitatively by cavity flow models (Ashcroft and Zhang 2005). The time-mean behavior of the shear layer is typically used to characterize cavity flow, and was estimated using vorticity thickness to quantify the growth rate of the shear layer horizontally across the pockmark. Estimated positive vorticity thickness spreading rates are consistent with cavity flow predictions, and occur at largely different rates between the two pockmarks. Previously modeled flow (Brothers et al. 2011) and laboratory measurements (Pau et al. 2014) over pockmarks of similar geometry to those examined herein are also qualitatively consistent with cavity flow circulation, suggesting that cavity flow may be a good first-order flow model for pockmarks in general.

Direct estimates of friction factors for a mobile rippled bed

New friction factor estimates are computed from the total momentum transfer applied to a rippled sediment bed. The total time-dependent momentum flux is achieved by implementing the double-averaged horizontal momentum equation on the nearbed flow field collected with PIV. Time-independent friction factors are obtained by regressing the total momentum flux to the common quadratic stress law given by . The resulting friction factors compare favorably with available analysis techniques including energy dissipation, vertical turbulence intensity, and maximum shear stress, but can be 2-6 times smaller than estimates determined with the model by [1994] and the formula of Swart [1974] using the ripple roughness. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

An In-Situ Motion Measurement System for Underwater Sediments Tracking

This paper describes an in-situ motion measurement system called EcoSSGs, or smart sediment grains, with a specific application to measuring the motion of underwater sediments. EcoSSGs are gyro-free inertial measurement units (GFIMU) enclosed in a 4-cm-diameter, ceramic, waterproof sphere whose density resembles that of sand. They are placed in water to sense their motion in response to wave forces and record the data in their on-board memory card. After the experiments, the EcoSSGs are collected from water, and their data are transferred wirelessly through their enclosure to a host PC under the control of the user interface. We implement wireless reprogramming, wireless charging, and magnetic switching to support data and power transfer in a permanently sealed enclosure. Experimental results validate the ability to track the motion of sediments with high accuracy. We expect this system to be able to help researchers in fluidic dynamics and coastal engineering confirm their models of sediment motion underwater for the purpose of predicting coastline evolution and object motion in water in general.