Diane L. Schallert

Coming to Terms: How Researchers in Learning and Literacy Talk About Knowledge

Terms used to designate knowledge constructs have proliferated in the literature and often seem to duplicate, subsume, or contradict one another. In this article, we present a conceptual framework for organizing and relating terms that pertain to select knowledge constructs. We begin with an examination of the literature. Based on that review, we build a framework that is intended to clarify terms, and the associations among them, and to articulate definitional statements for these knowledge terms. Finally, we consider the importance of this theoretical undertaking for future research in cognition and in learning.

Language Anxiety: Differentiating Writing and Speaking Components.

This study investigated the links between second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety as well as their associations with second language speaking and writing achievement. The results indicate that second language classroom anxiety, operationalized by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Copes Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, and second language writing anxiety, measured by a modified second language version of Daly and Millers Writing Apprehension Test, are two related but independent constructs. The findings suggest that second language classroom anxiety is a more general type of anxietyabout learning a second language with a strong speaking anxiety element, whereas second language writing anxiety is a language-skill-specific anxiety. Nevertheless, low self-confidence seems to be an important component of both anxiety constructs.

THE RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF L2 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY AND L1 READING ABILITY TO L2 READING PERFORMANCE: A TEST OF THE THRESHOLD HYPOTHESIS IN AN EFL CONTEXT

This study examines the contribution of L2 proficiency and L1 reading ability to L2 reading ability in terms of the threshold hypothesis of language proficiency. Two hypotheses were tested: (a) The contribution of L2 proficiency is greater than the contribution of L1 reading ability in predicting L2 reading ability, and (b) a threshold level of language proficiency exists such that learners with low levels of L2 proficiency will show little relationship between their L1 and L2 reading ability whereas learners with higher levels of L2 proficiency will show a positive relationship between their L1 and L2 reading performance. The participants were 809 Korean 3rd-year middle school and 1st-year high school students who exhibited a wide range of ability in reading both Korean and English and in their English proficiency. Scores from the three measures were subjected to descriptive, inferential, and correlational analyses. The results provided support for both hypotheses. Learners need to establish some knowledge of an L2 per se before they can successfully draw on their L1 reading ability to help with reading in the L2.

Effects of Learner Control, Advisement, and Prior Knowledge on Young Students' Learning in a Hypertext Environment.

This study was an investigation of the effects of learner control and of advisement in a hypertext learning environment with second-grade students who had different levels of prior knowledge about the content. Four treatment conditions crossing two variables, learner control (free access representing network structuring of hypertext vs. limited access representing hierarchical structuring of hypertext), and advisement (advisement vs. no-advisement), were established. From the quantitative and qualitative data, results indicated that: (a) for low prior knowledge (PK) students, the limited-access condition was more effective than the free-access condition, whereas high-PK students were able to function equally well in both conditions; (b) the free-access group reported a higher positive attitude for advisement than for no advisement, but the limited-access group showed no such difference in preference; (c) the low-PK group completed the lesson more quickly without advisement than with advisement, whereas the high-PK groups completion times did not vary across advisement conditions; and (d) analysis of the path data indicated that advisement was helpful in preventing disorientation in the free-access condition.

Expectancy-value relationships of shame reactions and shame resiliency

This study investigated expectancy-value predictors for experiencing shame from test feedback and the possible consequences of these shame reactions. Those who experienced shame included a broader range of students than previously thought, including some high achievers who had high self-perceptions of competence. Main expectancy-value predictors of shame were lower self-efficacy ratings and higher intrinsic as well as extrinsic goal orientations. Also, although having important future goals for which the course had instrumental value was not predictive of inducing shame, such goals appeared to exert influence on whether a person would be resilient from a shame reaction with increased motivation, motivated behavior, and higher academic exam scores. If students believe they have the capabilities and are committed to a clear future goal for which the course grade or course information is relevant, then a shame reaction may be a warning signal that current actions are not in line with future goal attainment. For these students, a personal evaluation of goal commitment may result in increased motivated behavior.

What Is Learning Anyway? A Topographical Perspective Considered.

The overarching purpose of this treatise was to develop a means by which to describe and evaluate existing perspectives on learning and to guide future explorations in this domain. Specifically, using the metaphor of a river system, we advance a framework into which theoretical perspectives and empirical investigations of learning can be positioned. We began by articulating nine principles of learning shared by diverse theoretical orientations. The primary focus of our analysis was a framework with four dimensions of learning (i.e., the what, where, who, and when) in continual interaction constituting the products and processes of learning. Based on these common principles and the interactive dimensions, we offered a definition of learning. Finally, we used three cases drawn from real-life experiences, and representing different configurations of the what, where, who, and when dimensions, to illuminate the comprehensiveness and utility of the topographical perspective on learning forwarded.

The Nature of Involvement in Academic Discourse Tasks.

In 2 studies, the nature of the construct of involvement in discourse was explored. The studies focused on academic discourse in typical reading and writing tasks. In the 1st study, interviews with undergraduates about involving and uninvolving tasks were used as the basis for constructing items for questionnaires. Responses to these items were submitted to multidimensional scaling. Results indicated a 2-dimensional solution, with the dimensions of involvement being understanding and concentration. In Study 2, students were asked to report on their levels of involvement during a course writing assignment; significant differences were found in level of involvement and associated moods across phases of writing

Being polite while fulfilling different discourse functions in online classroom discussions

Using a discourse analytic qualitative approach, we investigated the naturally-occurring discourse that arose as part of two kinds of regular course activities, synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated discussions. The messages contributed by members of a graduate course were analyzed for the kind of discourse functions and the kind of politeness strategies they displayed. Results indicated that synchronous CMD afforded more information seeking, information providing, and social comments than asynchronous CMD. Asynchronous discussions were slightly more likely to allow for such functions as discussion generating, experience sharing, idea explanation, and self-evaluation functions than synchronous discussions. Proportionately the two modes were similar in how politeness was expressed. Finally, in relating politeness and function, we found more politeness indicators when students were posting messages with such functions as positive evaluation and group conversation management, functions that carried the potential for face threat, and the least politeness associated with messages serving the function of experience sharing.

Intellectual, Motivational, Textual, And Cultural Considerations In Teaching and Learning With Computer-Mediated Discussion

Abstract We provide recommendations, grounded in research findings, for the use of computer-mediated discussion (CMD) in instruction. For years, we have studied undergraduate and graduate level courses that made use of synchronous and asynchronous electronically-mediated discussion as an important aspect of course design. Here, we discuss three questions and consider instructional recommendations grounded in our research: Can students successfully learn something of value as a result of participating in CMD? How can students’ attentional and motivational responses to CMD inform course design? What are ways to structure CMD more effectively when classes include international students?

Investigating the Interface Between Self-Regulation and Involvement Processes

This article considers how the processes that lead to involvement, defined as psychological engrossment, could be construed as mutually exclusive of what is meant by self-regulation, a metacognitive process that requires strategic and motivational control. However, this article proposes that much can be learned by attempting to capture the phase change in a task when self-regulatory processes disappear and a new, nonself-focused state takes over. The contribution to the self-regulation literature arises from an open-ended qualitative approach focused on the distinct phases of a task to reveal the role self-regulation can play in concert with other processes. This article elaborates on the ways self-regulation is connected to the nonregulative process of involvement.