Diane R. Follingstad

The Role of Emotional Abuse in Physically Abusive Relationships

Two hundred thirty four women were interviewed to assess the relationship of emotional abuse to physical abuse. Six major types of emotional abuse were identified. Analyses determined if the types of emotional abuse were related to the frequency and severity of physical abuse. Women in long-term abusive relationships were contrasted with women experiencing only short-term abuse. Other comparisons consisted of: women who thought emotional abuse was worse than physical abuse vs. women who thought the opposite; and women who could predict physical abuse from the emotional abuse were compared with those who could not. The extent to which the women believed the mens threats and ridicule or thought their abusive behavior was justified was used as a factor to determine the impact of emotional abuse. Future research should investigate emotional abuse patterns in nonbattering relationships for comparison with battered womens experiences.

Violence in lesbian and gay relationships: theory, prevalence, and correlational factors.

This article reviews and critiques the existing empirical literature examining interpersonal violence in lesbian and gay relationships. Studies assessing psychological, physical, and nonconsenting sexual forms of violence in intimate, same-sex relationships are reviewed, and their findings are integrated with what is known about partner abuse in heterosexual relationships. Nineteen studies are described and categorized according to the specific questions being addressed. This body of literature suggests that prevalence rates of same-sex partner abuse are high and its correlates show many similarities to those identified in incidents of heterosexual partner abuse. This article addresses the need for substantially increased efforts in this field of study in terms of well-controlled and theory-driven research design. In terms of other implications of this body of literature, the high prevalence rate of partner abuse among lesbian and gay populations needs to be recognized by providers of both physical and mental health services who potentially treat victims, so that they can more accurately identify appropriate interventions. More research is warranted, not only in the general area of lesbian and gay partner abuse, but in examining various treatment modalities and their effectiveness in helping perpetrators to end the cycle of violence.

Factors Moderating Physical and Psychological Symptoms of Battered Women

Physical and psychological symptoms of battered women were investigated based on the theory that their ongoing victimization would produce stress-related symptoms. It was hypothesized that moderating variables (e.g., frequency and severity of abuse, predictability and controllability of abuse, social support networks) would influence the effects of abuse. Battered women (N = 234) were interviewed according to a structured format which allowed for behavioral indices of the data and categorization of the womens responses. Results indicated that frequency of abuse was a strong predictor of the number and severity of symptoms. Those women who could predict abuse experienced more symptoms. Severity of physical and psychological symptoms was predicted by a model including women with more injuries requiring medical attention, women adhering to traditional sex role values, and the presence of one type of emotional abuse. Battered women perceived their physical and emotional health as deteriorating during the relationship and during the abuse, but as getting healthier after the abuse ended. Future research needs to replicate these findings with a representative group of battered women who are still in the battering relationship.

Risk Factors and Correlates of Dating Violence: The Relevance of Examining Frequency and Severity Levels in a College Sample

To determine whether categorizing levels of violence along dimensions of frequency and severity would result in informative distinctions among individuals using dating violence, reported use of physical violence, along with variables theorized to be related to use of force in intimate relationships, was assessed in a sample of 617 college students (males = 290; females = 327). When participants’ scores were analyzed by dichotomizing them along the lines of ever versus never using dating violence, numerous past findings were replicated. However, participants using a higher frequency of force were distinguished by needing to control their partner and by less inhibition in expressing their anger. Higher severity of force by an individual was predicted only by a need to control his/her dating partner. Implications for these findings were discussed.

Violence and Women's Mental Health: The Impact of Physical, Sexual, and Psychological Aggression

The reach of violence against women (VAW) has been profoundly felt by women across the United States and around the globe. VAW has been documented for decades as a legal and social justice problem, but as illuminated in this review, it is also a substantial mental health concern. A full understanding of the phenomenon must include discussion of how often it occurs, in what forms, and to whom. This review defines violence against women in its variant forms and examines the literature on the mental health effects associated with these abuse experiences. The effectiveness of the mental health systems response to the complex needs of women suffering battering, rape, stalking, and psychological aggression is also examined. The future of research and the important role of the discipline of psychology in the future of this field of study are discussed.

A Model for Predicting Dating Violence: Anxious Attachment, Angry Temperament, and Need for Relationship Control

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test a model incorporating anxious attachment, angry temperament, and attempts to control one’s partner as predictors of the severity and frequency of dating violence. To date, these concepts have not been clearly established as having direct or indirect effects on dating violence. It was hypothesized that anxious attachment and angry temperament would influence the need for and attempts to control one’s partner which, in turn, would predict a person’s actual use of force. College students (213 males; 199 females) completed measures assessing these constructs. Cross-validation was accomplished through using two successive freshmen samples. Statistics indicated the application of the model fit well to both samples. All specified paths were significant except for the direct path from anxious attachment to need for control in the second sample. While exploratory, this model seemed satisfactory for explaining potentially causal relationships of attachment, anger, and attempts to control one’s partner leading to dating violence.

Insomnia: Sleep patterns and anxiety level

ALTHOUGH individuals with psychiatric difficulties (particularly depression) apparently experience a greater incidence of insomnia than individuals without psychiatric difficulties, sleep disturbances are commonly reported in both psychiatric and nonpsychiatric populations [l]. Insomniacs typically report that it requires an excessive length of time to fall asleep once they are in bed and/or that they awaken frequently during the night. There are, however, no established criteria for differentiating insomniacs from non-insomniacs, nor is data available on the sleep patterns of these two groups. It is surprising, in view of the prevalence of insomnia, that etiological factors have not been conclusively identified. Monroe [2] and Maruzzi [3] have suggested that a high level of autonomic arousal may be a concomitant, if not causal, factor in abnormal sleep patterns. Because sleep is associated with low levels of autonomic arousal, individuals who are highly aroused may experience difficulty in falling asleep or may awaken frequently at night. If an elevated level of autonomic arousal is associated with sleeping difficulties, it would be expected that insomniacs would score higher than non-insomniacs on self-report measures of autonomic arousal and anxiety, such as the Manifest Anxiety Scale [4] and on physiological measures of autonomic arousal (e.g., heart rate, skin resistance). Budzynski [5], Malmo [6], and Pinneo [7] have demonstrated that, although individual variance is substantial, electromyography (EMG) levels, which are a measure of muscle tension, are directly related to other physiological measures of autonomic arousal. It would be expected, therefore, that EMG levels of insomniacs would be greater than that of non-insomniacs. If insomnia is viewed within an operant, rather than physiological-arousal paradigm, another possible etiological factor becomes apparent. Insomnia may be associated with inadequate stimulus control of sleeping behaviors. That is, insomniacs may engage in a large number of behaviors incompatible with sleeping (e.g., eating, watching TV, reading) while in their bed and bedroom. The stimuli (i.e., bed and sleeping room) may become associated with these incompatible behaviors, /thereby decreasing the probability that the behavior of “going to sleep” will be emitted in those situations. The treatment of insomnia has historically been medically oriented (i.e., administration of tranquilizers or sedatives). Recently, however, several investigators have reported successful treatment of insomnia in a number of uncontrolled case studies using variants of systematic desensitization or relaxation training [&lo]. The use of these behavioral techniques in the treatment of insomnia is based on the premise that anxiety or heightened autonomic arousal is an etiological or maintaining factor.

Defining Psychological Abuse of Husbands Toward Wives Contexts, Behaviors, and Typologies

Little consensus exists regarding which particular behaviors constitute psychological abuse. In this study, a national sample of psychologists rated behaviors by a husband toward his wife as to whether each behavior constituted psychological abuse. For behaviors viewed as “possibly abusive,” psychologists indicated whether their judgments would depend on contextual factors of frequency/duration, intent to harm by the perpetrator, and/or perception of harm by the victim. Frequency/duration was more influential than intent to harm or perception of harm in determining whether a behavior was viewed as abusive. Cluster analyses revealed conceptual groups that were labeled (a) threats to physical health; (b) control over physical freedoms; (c) destabilization through intimidation, degradation, isolation/monopolizing, and control; (d) dominating/controlling behaviors; and (e) “inept” relationship behaviors. Threats to physical health, control over physical freedoms, and destabilization were most likely to be perceived as psychological abuse, whereas inept behaviors were rarely viewed as inherently abusive.

Group therapy for incarcerated women who experienced interpersonal violence: A pilot study

This study evaluated effectiveness of group therapy for incarcerated women with histories of childhood sexual and/or physical abuse. The intervention was based on a two-stage model of trauma treatment and included Dialectical Behavior Therapy skills and writing assignments. We randomly assigned 24 participants to group treatment (13 completed) and 25 to a no-contact comparison condition (18 completed). We evaluated treatment effects, using the Beck Depression Inventory, Inventory of Interpersonal Problems, and Trauma Symptom Inventory. The data demonstrate significant reductions in PTSD, mood, and interpersonal symptoms in the treatment group.

The impact of psychological aggression on women's mental health and behavior: the status of the field

Potential effects of psychological aggression have been investigated in terms of mental health disorders/symptoms, physical manifestations, personality traits, increases in physical and psychological aggression, and relationship changes and cessation. Probably because of methodological difficulties inherent in assessing this complex phenomenon, even the most commonly assessed outcome variables have produced contradictory results, with the exception of leaving or desiring to leave the psychologically abusive relationship. Some of the significant findings require more corroboration due to the small number of studies addressing them. The relative role of physical abuse in relation to psychological abuse has yet to be disentangled. Mediator/moderator variables are likely extremely important for explaining why particular consequences do not consistently result from psychological aggression. Although the hypothesized consequences/outcomes seem appropriate for further study, the most significant contribution may lie in intensive investigation of long-term, enduring psychological abuse that produces major personality and affective shifts in the recipient.