Didier Fournier

Cholinesterases from the common oyster (Crassostrea gigas): Evidence for the presence of a soluble acetylcholinesterase insensitive to organophosphate and carbamate inhibitors

Marine bivalves such as oysters and mussels are widely used as bioindicators of contamination in the monitoring of pollutant effects. As filter feeders, these species are known to be good general indicators of chemical contamination. However, the efficient use of decreased acetylcholinesterase activity in the oyster as a biomarker of exposure to neurotoxic compounds requires a definition of the different types of cholinesterases coexisting in this mollusk. This study reports the partial purification, separation and characterization of two cholinesterases extracted from the oyster Crassostrea gigas. Differences in apparent molecular weight, type of glycosylation and hydrophobicity, and sensitivity to inhibitors suggest that they are encoded by two different genes. ‘A’ cholinesterase (apparent molecular weight 200 kDa) is anchored to the membrane via a glycolipid, is not glycosylated but sensitive to organophosphate and carbamate inhibitors. ‘B’ cholinesterase (molecular weight 330 kDa) is hydrophilic, glycosylated and highly resistant to organophosphate and carbamate inhibitors. The kinetic properties of these two cholinesterases were compared with those of other invertebrate cholinesterases. The presence of a cholinesterase insensitive to insecticides suggests that a significant improvement in the use of oyster cholinesterases as biomarkers of pollutant effects could be achieved by simple separation of the two forms.

Acetylcholinesterases from Musca domestica and Drosophila melanogaster Brain Are Linked to Membranes by a Glycophospholipid Anchor Sensitive to an Endogenous Phospholipase

Abstract: The sensitivity of acetylcholinesterases (AChEs) from Musca domestica and from Drosophila melanogaster to the phosphatidylinositol‐specific phospholipase C from Bacillus cereus and to the glycosylphosphatidylinositol‐specific phospholipase C from Trypanosoma brucei was investigated. B. cereus phospholipase C solubilizes membrane‐bound AChE, and both phospholipases convert amphiphilic AChEs into hydrophilic forms of the enzyme. The Upases uncover an immunological determinant that is found on other glycosylphosphatidylinositol‐anchored membrane proteins after the same treatment. This immunological determinant is also present on the native hydrophilic form of AChE. The polypeptide bearing the active site of the membrane‐bound enzyme migrates faster during sodium dodecyl sulfate‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis than the same polypeptide from the soluble enzyme. We conclude that AChE from insect brain is attached to membranes via a glycophospholipid anchor. This anchor is covalently linked to the polypeptide bearing the active esterase site of the enzyme and can be cleaved by an endogenous lipase.

Drosophila acetylcholinesterase: Mechanisms of resistance to organophosphates

Quantitative and qualitative changes of acetylcholinesterase can affect the sensitivity of insects to insecticides. First, the amount of acetylcholinesterase in the central nervous system is important in Drosophila melanogaster, flies which overexpress the enzyme are more resistant than wild-type flies. On the contrary, flies which express low levels of acetylcholinesterase are more susceptible. An overproduction of acetylcholinesterase outside the central nervous system also protects against organophosphate poisoning, that is, flies producing a soluble acetylcholinesterase, secreted in the haemolymph, are resistant to organophosphates. Second, resistance can also result from a qualitative modification of acetylcholinesterase. Four mutations have been identified in resistant strains: Phe115 to Ser, Ileu199 to Val, Gly303 to Ala and Phe368 to Tyr. Each of these mutations led to a different pattern of resistance and combinations between these mutations led to highly resistant enzymes.

Native Molecular Forms of Head Acetylcholinesterase from Adult Drosophila melanogaster: Quaternary Structure and Hydrophobic Character

Abstract: The native molecular forms of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) present in adult Drosophila heads were characterized by sedimentation analysis in sucrose gradients and by nondenaturing electrophoresis. The hydrophobic properties of AChE forms were studied by comparing their migration in the presence of Triton X100. 10‐oleyl ether, or sodium deoxycholate, or in the absence of detergent. We examined the polymeric structure of AChE forms by disulfide bridge reduction. We found that the major native molecular form is an amphiphilic dimer which is converted into hydrophilic dimer and monomer on autolysis of the extracts, or into a catalytically active amphiphilic monomer by partial reduction. The latter component exists only as trace amounts in the native enzyme. Two additional minor native forms were identified as hydrophilic dimer and monomer. Although a significant proportion of AChE was only solubilized in high salt, following extractions in low salt, this high salt‐soluble fraction contained the same molecular forms as the low salt‐soluble fractions: thus, we did not detect any molecular form resembling the asymmetric forms of vertebrate cholinesterases.

Biochemical characterization of the esterases A1 and B1 associated with organophosphate resistance in the Culex pipiens L. Complex

Abstract Two esterases, A1 and B1, displaying a high activity in organophosphate (OP) resistant Culex pipiens L. from southern France and in C. quinquefasciatus Say from California, respectively, have been analyzed. Both enzymes are shown to be soluble and to constitute a large proportion of the proteins (1–3% for esterase A1 and 6–12% for esterase B1). The size of native esterase A1 was estimated between 118 and 134 kDa, that of esterase B1 67 kDa. Upon SDS denaturation, esterase B1 leads a single polypeptide of 67 kDa which suggests that it is a monomeric protein; esterase A1 leads also a single polypeptide of 60 kDa suggesting a homodimeric structure of the protein. These observations are discussed with regards to esterase E4 of Myzus persicae Sultz.

Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by an alkylpyridinium polymer from the marine sponge, Reniera sarai

Large polymeric 3-alkylpyridinium salts have been isolated from the marine sponge Reniera sarai. They are composed of N-butyl(3-butylpyridinium) repeating subunits, polymerized head-to-tail, and exist as a mixture of two main polymers with molecular weights without counterion of about 5520 and 18900. The monomer analogue of the inhibitor, N-butyl-3-butylpyridinium iodide has been synthesized. This molecule shows mixed reversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. The polymers also act as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and show an unusual inhibition pattern. We tentatively describe it as quick initial reversible binding, followed by slow binding or irreversible inhibition of the enzyme. This kinetics suggests that there are several affinity binding sites on the acetylcholinesterase molecule where the polymer can bind. The first binding favors binding to other sites which leads to an apparently irreversibly linked enzyme-inhibitor complex.

Esterase metabolism and reduced penetration are causes of resistance to deltamethrin in Spodoptera exigua HUB (Noctuidea; lepidoptera)

Abstract Using deltamethrin in toxicological experiments we have shown that a guatemalian strain of Spodoptera exigua has an LC 40 at least 100 times that of a sensitive one. Delayed penetration and cleavage of deltamethrin at the ester bond are two mechanisms responsible for this resistance. Degradation of deltamethrin is 17 times higher in the resistant strain compared to the sensitive one. This degradation is inhibited by DEF and paraoxon, indicating that esterases are likely involved in the metabolism of this insecticide. In addition it has been shown that the resistant strain has an enhanced esterase activity toward chromogenic substrates, such as naphthyl acetate or methylumbelliferyl acetate, the level depending on the substrate used. It is likely that activity toward chromogenic substrates and the hydrolysis of deltamethrin are related.

Molecular Polymorphism of Head Acetylcholinesterase from Adult Houseflies (Musca domestica L.)

Abstract: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from housefly heads was purified by affinity chromatography. Three different native forms were separated by electrophoresis on poly‐acrylamide gradient gels; Two hydrophilic forms presented apparent molecular weights of 75,000 (AChE1) and 150,000 (AChE2). A third component (AChE3) had a migration that depended on the nature and concentration of detergents. In the presence of sodium deoxycholate in the gel, AChE3 showed an apparent molecular weight very close to that of AChE2. Among the three forms, AChE3 was the only one found in purified membranes. The relationships among the various forms were investigated using reduction with 2‐mercaptoethanol or proteolytic treatments. Such digestion converted purified AChE3 into AChE2 and AChE1, and reduction of AChE3 and AChE2 by 2‐mercaptoethanol gave AChE1, in both cases with a significant loss of activity. These data indicate that the three forms of purified AChE may be classified as an active hydrophilic monomeric unit (G1) plus hydrophilic and amphiphilic dimers. These two components were termed G2sand G2m, where “s” refers to soluble and “m” to membrane bound.).

Minigene rescues acetylcholinesterase lethal mutations in Drosophila melanogaster

The gene encoding acetylcholinesterase in Drosophila melanogaster is over 34,000 base-pairs long. We have constructed a 5800 base-pair minigene containing 1500 base-pairs of genomic sequence upstream from the transcription start spliced to the coding sequence, but lacking the nine introns. After germline genetic transformation, this minigene rescues acetylcholinesterase lethal mutants. Tissue-specific distribution appears normal. This allows us to test site-directed mutations of acetylcholinesterase. In a first effort, deletion of most of the unusual 1000 bases leader and its intriguing short open reading frames showed no effect on gene expression. The way is open to study in vivo the structure-function relationships of acetylcholinesterase and insecticide resistance.

Characterization of microsomal oxidative activities in a wild-type and in a DDT resistant strain of Drosophila melanogaster

Abstract Resistance of a laboratory selected DDT strain of Drosophila melanogaster (RalDDT R ) has been found to be monofactorial and correlated to an increased level of activity of the cytochrome P450-dependent mixed function oxidase (MFO). Both strains metabolize DDT and deltamethrin via MFO activity. However, the resistant strain does it more rapidly. The amount of DDT metabolites, including kelthane, bis-4-chlorophenyl acid, bis-4-chlorophenyl-ethanol, and 1,1-bis ( p -chlorophenyl)2,2-dichloroethane, is approximately 9-fold greater with RalDDT R microsomes than with the wild-type strain Raleigh (Ral). Production of deltamethrin metabolites is 2.7-fold higher within the resistant strain. As compared to insecticides, lauric acid and the two steroids used as substrates in this study present many more sites for MFO metabolic action. Lauric acid is hydroxylated on positions 11 and 12 by both strains, but the amount of metabolites formed is 10-fold higher with RalDDT R microsomes. The 2,22-dideoxyecdysone is converted to two polar metabolites when incubated with RalDDT R microsomal preparations. These unidentified metabolites are neither 2-deoxyecdysone nor ecdysone. Also reported for the first time is the metabolization of testosterone by insect microsomes, which gives 13 oxiderivatives formed at different rates, depending on the strains.