Diederik J. Opperman

A Novel Chromate Reductase from Thermus scotoductus SA-01 Related to Old Yellow Enzyme

Bacteria can reduce toxic and carcinogenic Cr(VI) to insoluble and less toxic Cr(III). Thermus scotoductus SA-01, a South African gold mine isolate, has been shown to be able to reduce a variety of metals, including Cr(VI). Here we report the purification to homogeneity and characterization of a novel chromate reductase. The oxidoreductase is a homodimeric protein, with a monomer molecular mass of approximately 36 kDa, containing a noncovalently bound flavin mononucleotide cofactor. The chromate reductase is optimally active at a pH of 6.3 and at 65 degrees C and requires Ca(2+) or Mg(2+) for activity. Enzyme activity was also dependent on NADH or NADPH, with a preference for NADPH, coupling the oxidation of approximately 2 and 1.5 mol NAD(P)H to the reduction of 1 mol Cr(VI) under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, respectively. The K(m) values for Cr(VI) reduction were 3.5 and 8.4 microM for utilizing NADH and NADPH as electron donors, respectively, with corresponding V(max) values of 6.2 and 16.0 micromol min(-1) mg(-1). The catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) of chromate reduction was 1.14 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1), which was >50-fold more efficient than that of the quinone reductases and >180-fold more efficient than that of the nitroreductases able to reduce Cr(VI). The chromate reductase was identified to be encoded by an open reading frame of 1,050 bp, encoding a single protein of 38 kDa under the regulation of an Escherichia coli sigma(70)-like promoter. Sequence analysis shows the chromate reductase to be related to the old yellow enzyme family, in particular the xenobiotic reductases involved in the oxidative stress response.

Mimicking nature: synthetic nicotinamide cofactors for C═C bioreduction using enoate reductases.

A series of synthetic nicotinamide cofactors were synthesized to replace natural nicotinamide cofactors and promote enoate reductase (ER) catalyzed reactions without compromising the activity or stereoselectivity of the bioreduction process. Conversions and enantioselectivities of >99% were obtained for C═C bioreductions, and the process was successfully upscaled. Furthermore, high chemoselectivity was observed when employing these nicotinamide cofactor mimics (mNADs) with crude extracts in ER-catalyzed reactions.

Aerobic Cr(VI) reduction by Thermus scotoductus strain SA‐01

Aim:  To evaluate Thermus scotoductus SA‐01’s ability to reduce Cr(VI) aerobically.

Towards Practical Baeyer–Villiger-Monooxygenases: Design of Cyclohexanone Monooxygenase Mutants with Enhanced Oxidative Stability

Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) catalyze the conversion of ketones and cyclic ketones into esters and lactones, respectively. Cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) from Acinetobacter sp. NCIMB 9871 is known to show an impressive substrate scope as well as exquisite chemo‐, regio‐, and enantioselectivity in many cases. Large‐scale synthetic applications of CHMO are hampered, however, by the instability of the enzyme. Oxidation of cysteine and methionine residues contributes to this instability. Designed mutations of all the methionine and cysteine residues in the CHMO wild type (WT) showed that the amino acids labile towards oxidation are mostly either surface‐exposed or located within the active site, whereas the two methionine residues identified for thermostabilization are buried within the folded protein. Combinatorial mutations gave rise to two stabilized mutants with either oxidative or thermal stability, without compromising the activity or stereoselectivity of the enzyme. The most oxidatively stabilized mutant retained nearly 40 % of its activity after incubation with H2O2 (0.2 M), whereas the wild‐type enzymes activity was completely abolished at concentrations as low as 5 mM H2O2. We propose that oxidation‐stable mutants might well be a “prerequisite” for thermostabilization, because laboratory‐evolved thermostability in CHMO might be masked by a high degree of oxidation instability.

A membrane-associated protein with Cr(VI)-reducing activity from Thermus scotoductus SA-01

A membrane-associated chromate reductase from Thermus scotoductus SA-01 has been purified to apparent homogeneity and shown to couple the reduction of Cr(VI) to NAD(P)H oxidation, with a preference towards NADH. The chromate reductase is a homodimer with a monomeric molecular weight of 48 kDa and a noncovalently bound FAD coenzyme. The enzyme is optimally active at a pH of 6.5 and 65 degrees C with a K(m) of 55.5+/-4.2 microM and a V(max) of 2.3+/-0.1 micromol Cr(VI) min(-1) mg(-1) protein. The catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) of the enzyme was found to be comparable to that found for quinone reductases but more efficient than the nitroreductases. N-terminal sequencing and subsequent screening of a genomic library of T. scotoductus revealed an ORF of 1386 bp, homologous (84%) to the dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase gene of Thermus thermophilus HB8. These results extend the knowledge of chromate reductases mediating Cr(VI) reduction via noncovalently bound or free redox-active flavin groups and the activity of dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenases towards physiologically unrelated substrates.

One‐pot Conversion of Cycloalkanes to Lactones

The one‐pot conversion of cycloalkanes to their corresponding lactones was achieved through the use of a synthetic pathway consisting of a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP450) for initial oxyfunctionalization of the cycloalkane, an alcohol dehydrogenase for ketone production and a Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenase for lactone formation. Through variation of the cofactor dependence of the biocatalysts and the cofactor regeneration system, final product concentrations of nearly 3 g L−1 enantholactone (2‐oxocanone) from cycloheptane was reached within 12 h with a total turnover number (TTN) of 4185 with respect to the CYP450.

Chemoenzymatic Reduction of Conjugated CC Double Bonds

Asymmetric reduction of conjugated C=C double bonds with use of enoate reductases (ERs) has generated a renewed interest for the preparation of chiral carbonyl compounds. With more and more ERs identified and their usefulness for preparative chemistry manifesting, the quest for the ideal regeneration system has begun. ERs utilize the reduced, enzyme-bound flavin mononucleotide (FMNH2) as a primary reductant. [1]

Structural and Catalytic Characterization of a Fungal Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenase

Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are biocatalysts that convert ketones to esters. Due to their high regio-, stereo- and enantioselectivity and ability to catalyse these reactions under mild conditions, they have gained interest as alternatives to chemical Baeyer-Villiger catalysts. Despite their widespread occurrence within the fungal kingdom, most of the currently characterized BVMOs are from bacterial origin. Here we report the catalytic and structural characterization of BVMOAFL838 from Aspergillus flavus. BVMOAFL838 converts linear and aryl ketones with high regioselectivity. Steady-state kinetics revealed BVMOAFL838 to show significant substrate inhibition with phenylacetone, which was more pronounced at low pH, enzyme and buffer concentrations. Para substitutions on the phenyl group significantly improved substrate affinity and increased turnover frequencies. Steady-state kinetics revealed BVMOAFL838 to preferentially oxidize aliphatic ketones and aryl ketones when the phenyl group are separated by at least two carbons from the carbonyl group. The X-ray crystal structure, the first of a fungal BVMO, was determined at 1.9 Å and revealed the typical overall fold seen in type I bacterial BVMOs. The active site Arg and Asp are conserved, with the Arg found in the “in” position. Similar to phenylacetone monooxygenase (PAMO), a two residue insert relative to cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) forms a bulge within the active site. Approximately half of the “variable” loop is folded into a short α-helix and covers part of the active site entry channel in the non-NADPH bound structure. This study adds to the current efforts to rationalize the substrate scope of BVMOs through comparative catalytic and structural investigation of different BVMOs.

Towards electroenzymatic processes involving old yellow enzymes and mediated cofactor regeneration

Old yellow enzymes are able to catalyze asymmetric C=C reductions. A mediated electroenzymatic process to regenerate the NADPH in combination with an old yellow enzyme was investigated. Due to the fact that the overall process was affected by a broad set of parameters, a design of experiments (DoE) approach was chosen to identify suitable process conditions. Process conditions with high productivities of up to 2.27 mM/h in combination with approximately 90% electron transfer efficiency were identified.

Alkyl Formate Ester Synthesis by a Fungal Baeyer–Villiger Monooxygenase

We investigated Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO)‐mediated synthesis of alkyl formate esters, which are important flavor and fragrance products. A recombinant fungal BVMO from Aspergillus flavus was found to transform a selection of aliphatic aldehydes into alkyl formates with high regioselectivity. Near complete conversion of 10 mm octanal was achieved within 8 h with a regiomeric excess of ∼80 %. Substrate concentration was found to affect specific activity and regioselectivity of the BVMO, as well as the rate of product autohydrolysis to the primary alcohol. More than 80 % conversion of 50 mm octanal was reached after 72 h (TTN nearly 20 000). Biotransformation on a 200 mL scale under unoptimized conditions gave a space‐time yield (STY) of 4.2 g L−1 d−1 (3.4 g L−1 d−1 extracted product).