Diego García-Gusano

Life cycle assessment of the Spanish cement industry: implementation of environmental-friendly solutions

AbstractnThis study tries to find out the hotspots of the Spanish cement sector in 2010 by the life cycle assessment (LCA) and evaluates some improvement scenarios where best available technologies and substitution measures are taken into consideration. The document presents an environmental LCA of the cement production using the 2011 International Reference Life Cycle Data System method recommended by the European Commission. Attending to the clinker production by stage, fossil fuel combustion is the most important source in terms of impacts. Besides, limestone’s calcination is crucial attending to the climate change. Electricity consumption is also relevant both in human toxicity with cancer effects and freshwater eutrophication (FE). Accordingly, solutions deployed lead to reductions in different impact categories. Fossil fuel substitution scenario achieves to reduce 33 and 37xa0% photochemical ozone formation and acidification (A), while material substitution scenario leads to reduce 10–13xa0% each impact category. On the other hand, fossil fuel substitution scenario entails an increase of 10xa0% in FE. Considering the ideal case of applying all these improvements together, reductions go from 15xa0% in FE to 49xa0% in A, respectively. To face the problems derived from fossil fuel combustion, a fuel shift is needed to reach less contaminant options such as biomass and bio-waste. Material substitution is another good solution for the industry, but it requires a change in the demand and further research to ensure the properties of cement. Authors recommend taking into consideration the collateral increase of the FE due to the phosphates increase coming from the alternative fuels combustion.

Evolution of NOx and SO2 emissions in Spain: ceilings versus taxes

Even though significant NOx and SO2 emissions reductions have been observed in Spain during last decade, there is a strong commitment to keep reducing the levels of pollution in order to improve air quality standards. This work has been carried out to ease the lack of National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD) assessments at country level. The Spanish case has been used as illustrative of the European Union. The evolution of NOx and SO2 emissions has been analysed in depth using the TIMES-Spain energy optimisation model. The work has been structured into three parts. First, the implementation of the NECD and the consequences both on the evolution of NOx and SO2 emissions, and the electricity production mix; second, taxation on these pollutants has been modelled and discussed; and finally, the proposed “2013 EU Clean Air Package” ceilings to update NECD have been assessed. Results showed that meeting NECD targets would involve a high contribution of renewable sources to the electricity system, mainly wind and solar. In addition, NOx and SO2 taxation has been assessed. Results showed that taxes on pollutants led to lower emissions than using NECD. Hence, current ceilings are not strict enough to internalise all the environmental damages associated to those pollutants. In consequence, the suitability of the NECD has been discussed by means of the new ceilings included in the EU Clean Air Policy Package. Results showed that proposed reductions are insufficient to compensate the environmental damages especially in the short term.

Life-cycle consequences of internalising socio-environmental externalities of power generation

Current national energy sectors are generally unsustainable. Within this context, energy policy-makers face the need to move from economy- to sustainability-oriented schemes. Beyond the integration of the sustainability concept into energy policies through the implementation of techno-economic, environmental and/or social restrictions, other approaches propose the use of externalities -based on life-cycle emissions- to deeply take into account sustainability in the design of the future energy system. In this sense, this work evaluates the consequences of internalising socio-environmental externalities associated with power generation. Besides the calculation of external costs of power generation technologies and their implementation in an energy systems optimisation model for Spain, the life-cycle consequences of this internalisation are explored. This involves the prospective analysis of the evolution of the sustainability indicators on which the externalities are founded, i.e. climate change and human health. For the first time, this is done by endogenously integrating the life-cycle indicators into the energy systems optimisation model. The results show that the internalisation of externalities highly influences the evolution of the electricity production mix as well as the corresponding life-cycle profile, hastening the decarbonisation of the power generation system and thus leading to a significant decrease in life-cycle impacts. This effect is observed both when internalising only climate change externalities and when internalising additionally human health external costs.

Lessons for regional energy modelling: enhancing demand-side transport and residential policies in Madrid

ABSTRACT The subnational level embodied by regions and cities presents unique challenges for energy policy. Large metropolitan areas tend to be consumers rather than producers of energy, with two of the most critical sectors being transport and residential. The Madrid region in Spain – one of Europe’s most significant urban areas – represents such a phenomenon. The Long-Range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP) modelling approach has been applied to Madrid for long-term sustainable energy planning. This paper presents the model, a business-as-usual projection and two alternate scenarios to 2050. The results show that by applying measures to decarbonize the transport and residential sectors, significant reductions in energy demand are possible.

Towards Energy Self-sufficiency in Large Metropolitan Areas: Business Opportunities on Renewable Electricity in Madrid

Large metropolitan areas are generally associated with high energy demand but low energy production, thus acting as vast energy drains. Reducing energy import levels in this type of region may bring about relevant business opportunities. Given the increasingly significant role of green (low-carbon) energy in current and future energy policies, these opportunities are expected to be closely linked to renewable energy. In this chapter, the energy system model of the region of Madrid (Spain) is used to evaluate novel energy scenarios to 2050 based on alternative electricity import levels. As indigenous electricity supply increases, wider market horizons arise for renewable energy technologies as a plausible option. Overall, through the case study of Madrid, it is shown that the path towards clean energy self-sufficiency has the potential to act as an effective catalyst for business opportunities on renewables in large metropolitan areas.

Ex Post and Prospective Analyses of Renewable Policies in Spain

In this work, socioeconomic and environmental impacts associated to energy technologies in the current and future Spanish Energy System have been estimated. This information has provided the base from which to conduct two kinds of analyses. First, an Ex post analysis of renewable policies in Spain, where the net impact on social welfare associated to the progressive introduction of those energies in the energy system has been assessed using a partial cost-benefit analysis. Then, a prospective analysis of the Spanish energy system where the optimum energy mix, which leads to the largest social welfare under different energy scenarios, taking into account a medium-long term time horizon (2035), has been estimated using the national energy optimization model TIMES-Spain. The results of the Ex post analysis of the period 2005–2012 show an increase on social welfare due to the introduction of renewable energies. Nevertheless, when assessing the total expenditure of renewables support policies, the results show this support exceeds the economic value of the socioeconomic and environmental externalities calculated in this work. The prospective analysis results for the period 2010–2035 definitely recommend a support for renewable electricity generation technologies and the redesigning of renewables support policies to better reflect their external benefits with respect to the fossil alternatives.