Diego Lirman

Competition between macroalgae and corals: effects of herbivore exclusion and increased algal biomass on coral survivorship and growth

Abstract. Recent declines in coral abundance accompanied by increases in macroalgal cover on Florida reefs highlight the importance of competition for space between these groups. This paper documents the frequency of coral–algal interactions on the Northern Florida Reef Tract and evaluates the effects of grazer exclusions and experimental algal addition on growth and tissue mortality of three coral species, Siderastreasiderea, Poritesastreoides, and Montastraeafaveolata. The frequency of interactions between corals and macroalgae was high as more than 50% of the basal perimeter of colonies was in contact with macroalgae; turf forms, Halimeda spp., and Dictyota spp. were the most common groups in contact with corals. Decreased grazing pressure resulted in significant increases in algal biomass within cages, and caged corals showed species-specific susceptibility to increased algal biomass. While no effects were detected for S. siderea, significant decreases in growth rates were documented for caged P. astreoides which had growth rates three to four times lower than uncaged colonies. When an algal addition treatment was included to duplicate maximum algal biomass levels documented for reefs in the area, colonies of P. astreoides in the algal addition treatment had growth rates up to ten times lower than uncaged colonies. High susceptibility to algal overgrowth was also found for the reef-building coral M. faveolata, which experienced significant tissue mortality under both uncaged (5.2% decrease in live tissue area per month) and caged (10.2% per month) conditions. The documented effects of increased algal biomass on coral growth and tissue mortality suggest a potential threat for the long-term survivorship and growth of corals in the Florida Reef Tract if present rates of algal growth and space utilization are maintained.

Fragmentation in the branching coral Acropora palmata (Lamarck) : growth, survivorship, and reproduction of colonies and fragments

Acropora palmata, a branching coral abundant on shallow reef environments throughout the Caribbean, is susceptible to physical disturbance caused by storms. Accordingly, the survivorship and propagation of this species are tied to its capability to recover after fragmentation. Fragments of A. palmata comprised 40% of ramets within populations that had experienced recent storms. While the survivorship of A. palmata fragments was not directly related to the size of fragments, removal of fragments from areas where they settled was influenced by size. Survivorship of fragments was also affected by type of substratum; the greatest mortality (58% loss within the first month) was observed on sand, whereas fragments placed on top of live colonies of A. palmata fused to the underlying tissue and did not experience any losses. Fragments created by Hurricane Andrew on a Florida reef in August 1992 began developing new growth (proto-branches) 7 months after the storm. The number of proto-branches on fragments was dependent on size, but growth was not affected by the size of fragments. Growth-rates of proto-branches increased exponentially with time (1.7 cm year(-1) for 1993-1994, 2.7 cm year(-1) for 1994-1995, 4.2 cm year(-1) for 1995-1996, and 6.5 cm year(-1) for 1996-1997), taking over 4 years for proto-branches to achieve rates comparable to those of adult colonies on the same reef (6.9 cm year(-1)). In addition to the initial mortality and reduced growth-rates, fragmentation resulted in a loss of reproductive potential. Neither colonies that experienced severe fragmentation nor fragments contained gametes until 4 years after the initial damage. Although A. palmata may survive periodic fragmentation, the long-term effects of this process will depend ultimately on the balance between the benefits and costs of this process.

Severe 2010 Cold-Water Event Caused Unprecedented Mortality to Corals of the Florida Reef Tract and Reversed Previous Survivorship Patterns

Background Coral reefs are facing increasing pressure from natural and anthropogenic stressors that have already caused significant worldwide declines. In January 2010, coral reefs of Florida, United States, were impacted by an extreme cold-water anomaly that exposed corals to temperatures well below their reported thresholds (16°C), causing rapid coral mortality unprecedented in spatial extent and severity. Methodology/Principal Findings Reef surveys were conducted from Martin County to the Lower Florida Keys within weeks of the anomaly. The impacts recorded were catastrophic and exceeded those of any previous disturbances in the region. Coral mortality patterns were directly correlated to in-situ and satellite-derived cold-temperature metrics. These impacts rival, in spatial extent and intensity, the impacts of the well-publicized warm-water bleaching events around the globe. The mean percent coral mortality recorded for all species and subregions was 11.5% in the 2010 winter, compared to 0.5% recorded in the previous five summers, including years like 2005 where warm-water bleaching was prevalent. Highest mean mortality (15%–39%) was documented for inshore habitats where temperatures were <11°C for prolonged periods. Increases in mortality from previous years were significant for 21 of 25 coral species, and were 1–2 orders of magnitude higher for most species. Conclusions/Significance The cold-water anomaly of January 2010 caused the worst coral mortality on record for the Florida Reef Tract, highlighting the potential catastrophic impacts that unusual but extreme climatic events can have on the persistence of coral reefs. Moreover, habitats and species most severely affected were those found in high-coral cover, inshore, shallow reef habitats previously considered the “oases” of the region, having escaped declining patterns observed for more offshore habitats. Thus, the 2010 cold-water anomaly not only caused widespread coral mortality but also reversed prior resistance and resilience patterns that will take decades to recover.

Seasonal Dynamics of Macroalgal Communities of the Northern Florida Reef Tract

Abstract Coral communities worldwide are undergoing intense degradation in response to natural and human disturbances, and many reef systems have already experienced significant declines in live coral cover associated with an increase in macroalgal abundance. Here, we document the seasonal dynamics of the macroalgal communities of the Northern Florida Reef Tract, providing a baseline for long-term studies of coral-algal competition in the area. Both macroalgal biomass and percent cover on reefs showed an increasing trend from January to July, when both light and temperature conditions were favorable for growth. Maximum percent cover (56.7 %) was found in July and minimum levels in December (25.8 %). During these peaks in algal cover, many corals were completely covered by dense mats of algae. Two genera, Halimeda and Dictyota, represented the largest proportion (77–99 %) of the total algal biomass. In the summer, Dictyota spp. dominated the algal community, occupying up to 40% of the reef bottom with a dry biomass of up to 20 g.m−2. In addition, two species, Stypopodium zonale and Trichogloea requienii, showed a significant bloom in April 1998, covering a significant percentage of the bottom (up to 25 %) at an inshore reef. Species that exhibited rapid space monopolization on Florida reefs, such as Dictyota spp. and Stypopodium zonale, also showed rapid growth in microcosm and field growth studies. No correlations were found between fish grazer abundance and algal biomass or percent cover, indicating that present grazer population abundance and composition are not adequate to prevent space monopolization and coral overgrowth by algae such as Dictyota spp. and Halimeda spp. Only a continued monitoring effort will determine whether the seasonal dynamics of the algal community may result in the decline of coral populations in the Northern Florida Reef Tract.

The Influence of Salinity on Seagrass Growth, Survivorship, and Distribution within Biscayne Bay, Florida: Field, Experimental, and Modeling Studies

We evaluate if the distribution and abundance ofThalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, andHalodule wrightii within Biscayne Bay, Florida, are influenced by salinity regimes using, a combination of field surveys, salinity exposure experiments, and a seagrass simulation model. Surveys conducted in June 2001 revealed that whileT. testudinum is found throughout Biscayne Bay (84% of sites surveyed),S. filiforme andH wrightii have distributions limited mainly to the Key Biscayne area.H. wrightii can also be found in areas influenced by canal discharge. The exposure of seagrasses to short-term salinity pulses (14 d, 5–45‰) within microcosms showed species-specific susceptibility to the salinity treatments. Maximum growth rates forT testudinum were observed near oceanic salinity values (30–40‰) and lowest growth rates at extreme values (5‰ and 45‰).S. filiforme was the most susceptible seagrass species; maximum growth rates for this species were observed at 25‰ and dropped dramatically at higher and lower salinity.H. wrightii was the most tolerant, growing well at all salinity levels. Establishing the relationship between seagrass abundance and distribution and salinity is especially relevant in South Florida where freshwater deliveries into coastal bays are influenced by water management practices. The seagrass model developed by Fong and Harwell (1994) and modified here to include a shortterm salinity response function suggests that freshwater inputs and associated decreases in salinity in nearshore areas influence the distribution and growth of single species as well as modify competitive interactions so that species replacements may occur. Our simulations indicate that although growth rates ofT. testudinum decrease when salinity is lowered, this species can still be a dominant component of nearshore communities as confirmed by our surveys. Only when mean salinity values are drastically lowered in a hypothetical restoration scenario isH. wrightii able to outcompeteT. testudinum.

Hurricanes benefit bleached corals

Recent, global mass-mortalities of reef corals due to record warm sea temperatures have led researchers to consider global warming as one of the most significant threats to the persistence of coral reef ecosystems. The passage of a hurricane can alleviate thermal stress on coral reefs, highlighting the potential for hurricane-associated cooling to mitigate climate change impacts. We provide evidence that hurricane-induced cooling was responsible for the documented differences in the extent and recovery time of coral bleaching between the Florida Reef Tract and the U.S. Virgin Islands during the Caribbean-wide 2005 bleaching event. These results are the only known scenario where the effects of a hurricane can benefit a stressed marine community.

Ecological conceptual models: a framework and case study on ecosystem management for South Florida sustainability

The Everglades and South Florida ecosystems are the focus of national and international attention because of their current degraded and threatened state. Ecological risk assessment, sustainability, and ecosystem and adaptive management principles and processes are being used nationally as a decision and policy framework for a variety of types of ecological assessments. The intent of this study is to demonstrate the application of these paradigms and principles at a regional scale. The effects-directed assessment approach used in this study consists of a retrospective, eco-epidemiological phase to determine the causes for the current conditions and a prospective predictive risk-based assessment using scenario analysis to evaluate future options. Embedded in these assessment phases is a process that begins with the identification of goals and societal preferences which are used to develop an integrated suite of risk-based and policy relevant conceptual models. Conceptual models are used to illustrate the linkages among management (societal) actions, environmental stressors, and societal/ecological effects, and provide the basis for developing and testing causal hypotheses. These models, developed for a variety of landscape units and their drivers, stressors, and endpoints, are used to formulate hypotheses to explain the current conditions. They are also used as the basis for structuring management scenarios and analyses to project the temporal and spatial magnitude of risk reduction and system recovery. Within the context of recovery, the conceptual models are used in the initial development of performance criteria for those stressors that are determined to be most important in shaping the landscape, and to guide the use of numerical models used to develop quantitative performance criteria in the scenario analysis. The results will be discussed within an ecosystem and adaptive management framework that provides the foundation for decision making.

A simulation model of the population dynamics of the branching coral Acropora palmata effects of storm intensity and frequency

Abstract A stage-based model was developed to predict the effects of storm intensity and frequency on populations of the branching coral Acropora palmata. The data used to parameterize the model were obtained from an A. palmata population in the northern Florida Reef Tract that experienced three storms in 27 months. Storm intensity is a significant factor influencing the survivorship of A. palmata populations. After a severe storm, A. palmata populations can be numerically dominated by fragments and crusts. The shift in biomass from units with high survivorship (i.e. colonies) to units with higher mortality probabilities (i.e. fragments and crusts) can affect the recovery and long-term survivorship of disturbed populations. However, the model suggests that A. palmata still can benefit from periodic storms. When sexual recruitment is limited or sporadic, storm fragmentation followed by fragment survivorship and growth may be the only mechanism available for A. palmata to propagate. Storm frequency can also affect the survivorship of A. palmata. When storms occur at 15-year intervals, a slow increase in the abundance of colonies can take place after 10 consecutive storms. When storm frequency increases to 5 years, the abundance of colonies can increase five-fold after 10 storms. However, as storm frequency increases further (one storm every 2 years) a steady decline in the abundance of A. palmata colonies can occur.

Untangling Natural Seascape Variation from Marine Reserve Effects Using a Landscape Approach

Distinguishing management effects from the inherent variability in a system is a key consideration in assessing reserve efficacy. Here, we demonstrate how seascape heterogeneity, defined as the spatial configuration and composition of coral reef habitats, can mask our ability to discern reserve effects. We then test the application of a landscape approach, utilizing advances in benthic habitat mapping and GIS techniques, to quantify this heterogeneity and alleviate the confounding influence during reserve assessment. Seascape metrics were quantified at multiple spatial scales using a combination of spatial image analysis and in situ surveys at 87 patch reef sites in Glovers Reef Lagoon, Belize, within and outside a marine reserve enforced since 1998. Patch reef sites were then clustered into classes sharing similar seascape attributes using metrics that correlated significantly to observed variations in both fish and coral communities. When the efficacy of the marine reserve was assessed without including landscape attributes, no reserve effects were detected in the diversity and abundance of fish and coral communities, despite 10 years of management protection. However, grouping sites based on landscape attributes revealed significant reserve effects between site classes. Fish had higher total biomass (1.5×) and commercially important biomass (1.75×) inside the reserve and coral cover was 1.8 times greater inside the reserve, though direction and degree of response varied by seascape class. Our findings show that the application of a landscape classification approach vastly improves our ability to evaluate the efficacy of marine reserves by controlling for confounding effects of seascape heterogeneity and suggests that landscape heterogeneity should be considered in future reserve design.

Growth dynamics of the threatened caribbean staghorn coral acropora cervicornis: Influence of host genotype, symbiont identity, colony size, and environmental setting

Background The drastic decline in the abundance of Caribbean acroporid corals (Acropora cervicornis, A. palmata) has prompted the listing of this genus as threatened as well as the development of a regional propagation and restoration program. Using in situ underwater nurseries, we documented the influence of coral genotype and symbiont identity, colony size, and propagation method on the growth and branching patterns of staghorn corals in Florida and the Dominican Republic. Methodology/Principal Findings Individual tracking of> 1700 nursery-grown staghorn fragments and colonies from 37 distinct genotypes (identified using microsatellites) in Florida and the Dominican Republic revealed a significant positive relationship between size and growth, but a decreasing rate of productivity with increasing size. Pruning vigor (enhanced growth after fragmentation) was documented even in colonies that lost 95% of their coral tissue/skeleton, indicating that high productivity can be maintained within nurseries by sequentially fragmenting corals. A significant effect of coral genotype was documented for corals grown in a common-garden setting, with fast-growing genotypes growing up to an order of magnitude faster than slow-growing genotypes. Algal-symbiont identity established using qPCR techniques showed that clade A (likely Symbiodinium A3) was the dominant symbiont type for all coral genotypes, except for one coral genotype in the DR and two in Florida that were dominated by clade C, with A- and C-dominated genotypes having similar growth rates. Conclusion/Significance The threatened Caribbean staghorn coral is capable of extremely fast growth, with annual productivity rates exceeding 5 cm of new coral produced for every cm of existing coral. This species benefits from high fragment survivorship coupled by the pruning vigor experienced by the parent colonies after fragmentation. These life-history characteristics make A. cervicornis a successful candidate nursery species and provide optimism for the potential role that active propagation can play in the recovery of this keystone species.