Diethard Sanders

Syndepositional dissolution of calcium carbonate in neritic carbonate environments: geological recognition, processes, potential significance

Within carbonate sediments below tropical–subtropical oceanic surface waters, syndepositional ‘‘chemical’’ dissolution of CaCO3 driven by organic matter oxidation can modify substantially the textural, compositional and early diagenetic characteristics of the resulting rock. Main actuogeological evidence for ‘‘chemical’’ dissolution includes pore-water chemistry of carbonate sediments, and corrosion of bioclasts. Geological evidence includes taphonomic bias towards bioclasts of primary low-magnesium calcite, ghosts of aragonitic or high-magnesium calcitic bioclasts or fossils, lateral variations in early lithification, corroded early cements, pores overprinted by dissolution, and aragonite relicts in microspar. To date, evidence for syndepositional dissolution has been identified, with gaps in documentation, in Silurian to Cretaceous limestones. During organic matter oxidation in the sediment, aerobic respiration, sulfate reduction and oxidation of reaction by-products (e.g. H2S) may result in local undersaturation for CaCO3. Depending on the degree of openness of the diagenetic system, microbial sulfate reduction and, in open systems, reactions involving reaction by-products may in one case lead to precipitation, in another to dissolution of calcium carbonate. Both organic matter oxidation and fluctuations in pore water carbonate saturation are amplified by bioturbation. In burrowed carbonate sediments, carbonate dissolution is coupled to sulfate reduction and oxidation of hydrogen sulfide [Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 63 (1999) 2529]. Part of the dissolved CaCO3 is recycled to the sea, but the amount of dissolution recycling is difficult to estimate. Below the bioturbated layer, perhaps much of the dissolved calcium carbonate reprecipitates. In Phanerozoic neritic carbonate environments, syndepositional dissolution proceeded at least largely independent from aragonite seas or calcite seas, and appears mainly controlled by site-related factors. Over Phanerozoic time, both bioerosion and factors favourable for ‘‘chemical’’ dissolution within the sediment increased. � 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

FACIES ANALYSIS AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF A MIOCENE WARM-TEMPERATE CARBONATE RAMP, MONTAGNA DELLA MAIELLA, ITALY

Abstract The uppermost Oligocene/Lower Miocene to Upper Miocene ramp carbonates from Montagna della Maiella (Italy) form a supersequence bounded by deeply incised truncation surfaces. This supersequence is subdivided into four sequences. Each sequence is composed of skeletal limestones in its lower part and marly limestones in its upper part. The lower parts of the sequences are foramol limestones, which suggest deposition in the warm-temperate climate zone. Changes in climate, oceanography and relative sea level combined to control sedimentation in the four sequences. In the lower parts of the two older sequences, the skeletal sands built dunes, suggesting high-energy conditions. The dominant skeletal grains in the oldest sequence are larger foraminifers and in the next sequence they are bryozoans; this change reflects cooling around the time of the Aquitanian/Burdigalian boundary. In the lower parts of the two younger sequences, of Middle and Late Miocene age, sediment sheets with red-algal–bryozoan oncoids suggest deposition under calmer conditions. Transgressive and highstand systems tracts are recognized in all sequences; a shelf margin systems tract may be exposed in the second oldest sequence. In contrast to the situation that exists when warm-water carbonates are deposited, sedimentation of the foramol limestones on this isolated ramp was unable to balance accommodation during sea-level rise; this led to hemipelagic sedimentation during sea-level highstands. Conglomerates resulted from reworking along flooding surfaces.

Tectonically controlled late cretaceous terrestrial to neritic deposition (Northern Calcareous Alps, Tyrol, Austria)

SummaryThe Turonian to Santonian terrestrial to neritic succession (Lower Gosau Subgroup) in the Northern Calcareous Alps of the eastern part of the Tyrol, Austria, provides an example for deposition on a compartmentalized, narrow, microtidal to low-mesotidal, wave-dominated, mixed siliciclastic-carbonate shelf. The shelf was situated in front of a mainland with a relatively high, articulated relief, and underwent distinct changes in facies architecture mainly as a result of tectonism.The investigated succession was deposited above a deeply incised, articulated truncation surface that formed when the Eo-Alpine orogen, including the area of the future Northern Calcareous Alps, was uplifted and subaerially eroded. Distinct facies associations were deposited from (1) alluvial fans and fan deltas, (2) rivers, (3) siliciclastic lagoonal to freshwater marsh environments, (4) areally/temporally limited carbonate lagoons, (5) transgressive shores, (6) siliciclastic shelf environments, and (7) an aggrading carbonate shelf. During the Turonian to Coniacian, the combination of high rates of both subsidence and sediment accumulation, and a narrow shelf that was compartmentalized with respect to (a) morphology of the substratum, (b) fluviatile input of siliciclastics and contemporaneous input of carbonate clasts from fan deltas, (c) deposition of shallow-water carbonates, and (d) water energy and-depth gave rise to an exceptionally wide spectrum of facies as a distinguishing feature of the succession. With the exception of facies association 7, which formed only once, depositional sequences in the Turonian to Coniacian interval contain all of the facies associations 1 to 6. During Turonian to Coniacian times, the shelf was microtidal to low-mesotidal, and was dominated by waves, storm waves and storm-induced currents. In vegetated marshes, schizohaline to freshwater marl lakes existed. Transgressions occurred onto fan deltas and in association with estuaries, or in association with gravelly to rocky shores. The transgressive successions, including successions deposited from transgressive rocky carbonate shores, are overlain by regressive successions of shelf carbonates or shelf siliciclastics. Deposition of shallow-water carbonates generally occurred within lagoons and over short intervals of time. A „catch-up” succession of shelf carbonates about 100 m thick accumulated only in an area protected from siliciclastic input.In its preserved parts, the Turonian to Coniacian succession does not record deposition adjacent to major active faults. Lateral changes in thickness result mainly from onlap onto the articulated basal truncation surface. Subsidence most probably was controlled by major detachment faults outside the outcrop area, and/or was distributed over a wide area in association with secondary faults above the major detachments.During Coniacian to Early Santonian times, both the older substratum and the overlying Turonian-Coniacian succession were subaerially exposed, faulted and deeply eroded. The following Early Santonian transgression ensued with rocky carbonate shores ahead of a sandy, narrow shoreface-inner shelf environment and a deeper shelf with intermittentlydysaerobic mud. The transgression was associated with the influx of cooler and/or nutrient-rich waters, and heralds an overall deepening. Still during the Early Santonian, the deepening was interrupted by another phase of subaerial exposure. Subsequently, a short phase of shelf deposition was terminated by deepening into bathyal depths.

Sea-level highstand and lowstand shedding related to shelf margin aggradation and emersion, Upper Eocene-Oligocene of Maiella carbonate platform, Italy

Abstract Sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Upper Eocene-Lower Oligocene of the Maiella carbonate platform allows the timing of shelf aggradation and erosion to be linked to shedding onto the slope and relative sea-level stands. The shelf was eroded during lowstands, and the lowstand slope sediments are thin channelized lithic breccias with clasts eroded from an emerged reef tract. Highstand shedding of skeletal sands from the inner shelf resulted in thick coarsening-and-thickening-upward successions of turbidites.

Coral-rudist bioconstructions in the Upper Cretaceous Haidach section (Gosau Group; Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria)

SummaryIn the area of Haidach (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria), coral-rudist mounds, rudist biostromes, and bioclastic limestones and marls constitute an Upper Cretaceous shelf succession approximately 100 meters thick. The succession is part of the mixed siliciclasticcarbonate Gosau Group that was deposited at the northern margin of the Austroalpine microplate.In its lower part, the carbonate succession at Haidach comprises two stratal packages that each consists, from bottom to top, of a coral-rudist mound capped by a rudist biostrome which, in turn, is overlain by bioclastic limestones and, locally, marls. The coral-rudist mounds consist mainly of floatstones. The coral assemblage is dominated by Fungiina, Astreoina, Heterocoeniina andAgathelia asperella (stylinina). From the rudists, elevators (Vaccinites spp., radiolitids) and recumbents (Plagioptychus) are present. Calcareous sponges, sclerosponges, and octocorals are subordinate. The elevator rudists commonly are small; they settled on branched corals, coral heads, on rudists, and on biolastic debris. The rudists, in turn, provided settlement sites for corals. Predominantly plocoid and thamnasteroid coral growth forms indicate soft substrata and high sedimentation rates. The mounds were episodically smothered by carbonate mud. Many corals and rudists are coated by thick and diverse encrustations that indicate high nutrient level and/or turbid waters.The coral-rudist mounds are capped byVaccinites biostromes up to 5 m thick. The establishment of these biostromes may result from unfavourable environmental conditions for corals, coupled with the potential of the elevator rudists for effective substrate colonization. TheVaccinites biostromes are locally topped by a thin radiolitid biostrome. The biostromes, in turn, are overlain by bioclastic limestones; these are arranged in stratal packages that were deposited from carbonate sand bodies. Approximately midsection, an interval of marls with abundantPhelopteria is present. These marls were deposited in a quiet lagoonal area where meadows of sea grass or algae, coupled with an elevated nutrient level, triggered the mass occurrence ofPhelopteria.The upper part of the Haidach section consists of stratal packages that each is composed of a rudist biostrome overlain by bioclastic wackestones to packstones with diverse smaller benthic foraminifera and calcareous green algae. The biostromes are either built by radiolitids,Vaccinites, andPleurocora, or consist exclusively of radiolitids (mainlyRadiolites). Both the biostromes and the bioclastic limestones were deposited in a low-energy lagoonal environment that was punctuated by high-energy events.In situ-rudist fabrics typically have a matrix of mudstone to rudistclastic wackestone; other biogens (incl. smaller benthic foraminifera) are absent or very rare. The matrix of rudist fabrics that indicate episodic destruction by high-energy events contain a fossil assemblage similar to the vertically associated bioclastic limestones. Substrata colonized by rudists thus were unfavourable at least for smaller benthic foraminifera.The described succession was deposited on a gently inclined shelf segment, where coral-rudist mounds and hippuritid biostromes were separated by a belt of bioclastic sand bodies from a lagoon with radiolitid biostromes. The mounds document that corals and Late Cretaceous elevator rudists may co-occur in close association. On the scale of the entire succession, however, mainly as a result of the wide ecologic range of the rudists relative to corals, the coral-dominated mounds and the rudist biostromes are vertically separated.

Burrow-mediated carbonate dissolution in rudist biostromes (Aurisina, Italy): implications for taphonomy in tropical, shallow subtidal carbonate environments

Abstract In Upper Cretaceous rudist biostromes at Aurisina, Italy, marked taphonomic loss of radiolitids by burrow-mediated dissolution and mechanical disintegration illustrates the relation between synecology and early diagenesis in the fossilization of tropical shallow-water bioconstructions. The studied platform succession accumulated in a prevalently open lagoon with bioturbated carbonate sand, rudist thickets, bioclastic dunes, and areas with shelly lime ooze. Rudist biostromes consist of radiolitids and hippuritids, or of radiolitids only, and have an open, parautochthonous rudist fabric with a matrix of bioclastic, bioturbated wackestone. “Swirly” disorientation of bioclasts records early softground bioturbation. Later firmground burrows comprise an irregular network of tunnels and chambers filled with bioclastic packstone to grainstone. The size, geometry and sediment fill of the firmground burrows suggest that they were produced by crustaceans. Radiolitid preservation ranges from complete to relictic. Radiolitid relicts formed by (a) spalling and/or dissolution of the cellular boxwork ostracum of the attached valve, leaving “calcite-tubes” built by a distinct, thin ostracal shell layer, or (b) dissolution of the entire shell, leaving the sedimentary fills of the intertabular spaces of the attached valve as a diagnostic vestige, or (c) shell dissolution within the firm sediment, with subsequent filling of the biomould by bioclastic wackestone to packstone to grainstone. Loss of radiolitids produced a taphonomic bias towards rudists with non-cellular ostracum. Locally, taphonomic loss produced “ghost biostromes” composed nearly entirely of faint radiolitid relicts. Shell dissolution resulted from chemical gradients in the sediment within and near the burrows, and from enhanced microboring and microbial infestation. Dissolution of radiolitids was favoured by the combined effects of chemical instability of hypostracal aragonite and by the structure of the calcitic boxwork ostracum of thin-walled cells. Some biostromes are intercalated with, or are capped or overlain within a short vertical distance, by a hardly recognizable emersion surface, as a consequence of the shallow depth of biostrome accumulation. Taphonomic loss by dissolution is widespread in open, parautochthonous rudist fabrics, and confirms actuogeological results of other authors that bioturbation mediates carbonate dissolution also under shallow tropical waters supersaturated for calcium carbonate. The amount of carbonate dissolved upon burrowing of the biostrome matrix is hardly quantifiable but, by analogy to Recent carbonate environments, may have been large. Within bioconstructions, deep-tiered burrowing occurred at least since the Carboniferous. Taphonomic loss by dissolution thus may have been active in the fossilization of tropical shallow-water mounds and biostromes over much of Phanerozoic times.

A global review on ambient Limestone-Precipitating Springs (LPS) : Hydrogeological setting, ecology, and conservation

Springs are biodiversity hotspots and unique habitats that are threatened, especially by water overdraft. Here we review knowledge on ambient-temperature (non-geothermal) freshwater springs that achieve sufficient oversaturation for CaCO3 -by physical CO2 degassing and activity of photoautotrophs- to deposit limestone, locally resulting in scenic carbonate structures: Limestone-Precipitating Springs (LPS). The most characteristic organisms in these springs are those that contribute to carbonate precipitation, e.g.: the mosses Palustriella and Eucladium, the crenophilous desmid Oocardium stratum, and cyanobacteria (e.g., Rivularia). These organisms appear to be sensitive to phosphorus pollution. Invertebrate diversity is modest, and highest in pools with an aquatic-terrestrial interface. Internationally, comprehensive legislation for spring protection is still relatively scarce. Where available, it covers all spring types. The situation in Europe is peculiar: the only widespread spring type included in the EU Habitat Directive is LPS, mainly because of landscape aesthetics. To support LPS inventorying and management to meet conservation-legislation requirements we developed a general conceptual model to predict where LPS are more likely to occur. The model is based on the pre-requisites for LPS: an aquifer lithology that enables build-up of high bicarbonate and Ca(2+) to sustain CaCO3 oversaturation after spring emergence, combined with intense groundwater percolation especially along structural discontinuities (e.g., fault zones, joints, schistosity), and a proper hydrogeological structure of the discharging area. We validated this model by means of the LPS information system for the Emilia-Romagna Region (northern Italy). The main threats to LPS are water diversion, nutrient enrichment, and lack of awareness by non-specialized persons and administrators. We discuss an emblematic case study to provide management suggestions. The present review is devoted to LPS but the output of intense ecological research in Central Europe during the past decades has clearly shown that effective conservation legislation should be urgently extended to comprise all types of spring habitats.

Rocky shore-gravelly beach transition, and storm/post-storm changes of a holocene gravelly beach (Kos island, Aegean sea): Stratigraphic significance

SummaryOn Kos island, Greece, along an investigated coastal segment 3 km in length, four adjacent sectors were distinguished, (1) Empros beach, a rocky shore with plunging cliffs and a steeply dipping, submarine talus, (2) Thermi beach, a „coarse-clastic beach” with a subaerial cliff fringed by a bouldery to coarse gravelly beach with poorly developed zonation, (3) Dimitra beach, a gravelly beach with well-developed zonation, and (4) Phokas beach, a gravelly beach characterized by finer mean grain size. The lateral variation in Holocene coastal morphology would lead to different transgressive records: „rapid” sea-level rise that may be suggested by transgression of the rocky shore is contemporaneous with „gradual” rise recorded by transgression of the gravelly beaches.Dimitra beach is an about 500 m long, cuspate, microtidal, wave-dominated gravelly beach. From land offshore, in its fairweather configuration it shows(a)a backshore of rounded gravels to small, rounded boulders,(b)a winter storm berm paved by disc-shaped clasts,(c)a belt of beach cusps each centered by an oblique-triangular foreshore sand flat, and flanked by gravel ridges of roughly triangular shape in plan view,(d)a fairweather plunge step,(e)a. „relic storm/swell beachface” (uppermost shoreface during fairweather) of clean, rounded coarse gravels to cobbles,(f)a storm/swell plunge step, and(g)a vencer of gravels to boulders that, farther seaward, grades into submarine sand flats. During storm upbuilding, the foreshore sand flats disappeared, the gravel ridges were eroded and an even, more gently dipping storm beachface developed. Beach restoration in a swell regime proceeded in feedback with the emergent fairweather beach morphology. During ensuing fairweather, the foreshore sand flats were partly winnowed. On Dimitra beach the layer involved in beach face to uppermost shoreface dynamics was about 1 m thick and 10–15 m wide. In fossil gravelly beach successions, features formed during highenergy events include both berms and master bedding surfaces. Features of the waning stage are fairweather plunge steps and relic storm/swell beachfaces (lower beachface). From cuspate gravel ridges of the upper beachface probably only the basal part is preserved.

Calcification types of Oocardium stratum Nägeli and microhabitat conditions in springs of the Alps

Abstract.  Habitat conditions and spring-associated limestones (SALs) formed by ambient precipitation with the biotic contribution of the desmid Oocardium stratum Nägeli 1843 (Zygnematophyceae) were studied in 5 springs along a north–south transect across the central Eastern European Alps. Spring waters were characterized by permanent flow and temporally almost stable physicochemical conditions, but variable relationships among major ions (especially HCO3−:SO42− and Ca2+:Mg2+) among sites. In most cases, CO2 supersaturation (0.2–1.8 µM/L) caused in situ depression of pH from near equilibrium (8.3) to <8, with a minimum pH of 7.1. SAL areas dominated by Oocardium growth were greatest some distance downstream of the spring origin where degassing of excess CO2 had occurred and pH had risen to >8.1. The calcified segments of spring streams were limited to areas <300 m from the spring mouth. Within the uppermost segment of larger rheocrenes (CO2 supersaturated areas), extensive weakly calcified bryophyte crops (Eucladium verticillatum, Palustriella commutata) were replaced further downstream by Oocardium-spiked calcified coatings. The various morphologies of Oocardium cells (assessed with light microscopy [LM], scanning electron microscopy [SEM], and petrographic thin sections) revealed different types of calcification, from micritic (<1–4 µm) to sparitic calcites (>100–1000 µm) whose ultrastructural features were best seen with SEM. The distribution of SAL types within and among sites was evaluated in relation to water-chemistry and additional environmental variables. The findings were compared with earlier records from the Alps and other mountain areas of Europe (in particular, Croatia and UK) to facilitate recognition and delimitation of Oocardium niches in the environment and to foster protection of these rare habitats.

Stratigraphic architecture of a Santonian mixed siliciclastic-carbonate succession (Catalonian Pyrenees, Spain)

SummaryAt Collades de Bastus, Catalonian Pyrences, a Santonian mixed siliciclastic-carbonate succession indicates two proximal-distal gradients, and records two styles of stratigraphical development upon relative sea-level change. The succession consists of four small-scale sequences (5.1 to 5.4) within the highstand systems tract of the. “Valicarca-5” depositional sequence of Simo (1993), and is topped by a drowning sequence (small-scale sequence 5.5).The investigated succession (Collades Member) accumulated near the margin of the south-Pyrenean shelf, shortly before development of the south-vergent Boixols thrust system. Deposition of the Collades Member commenced with moderate sea-level rise accompanied by increased siliciclastic input. In the larger, eastern outcrop sector the Collades Member consists of a succession of neritic marls with four intercalated intervals each deposited from a carbonate shelf. Each carbonate interval consists of stacked upward-shoaling cycles interpreted as parasequences. From bottom to top, most parasequences consist of a coral-sponge-rudist bioconstruction, a rudist biostrome, and bioclastic limestones. Depositional sequences 5.1 to 5.4 developed by overstep of shelf carbonates with neritic marls, corresponding to the transgressive systems tract (TST) and to part of the highstand systems tract(HST) The carbonate facies tract of the HST consists of stacked parasequences that become thinner up-section and record a westward component of progradation. Each highstand carbonate interval is overlain by a stack of carbonate parasequences that become thicker up-section and, down depositional dip, by neritic marls. Together, the upward-thickening parasequence stack and the laterally adjacent overlying succession of neritic marls comprise the TST and part of the HST of the successive sequence. The sequence boundary is the level of maximum shoaling within each carbonate shelf interval. The uppermost sequence 5.5 is a drowning sequence (cf. Simo 1993).In the western outcrop sector, the Collades Member consists of hummocky cross-laminated to bioturbated sandy calcarenites, of neritic marls and of relatively thin intervals of coral-sponge-rudist limestones. Sequence development may have started with deposition of sharp-based bedsets of sandy calcarenites that both eastward and up-section become thinner and grade into neritic marls. Together, the succession of sandy calcarenites and neritic marls may comprise the TST and, possibly, part of the HST. In the HST neritic marls and, locally, coral-sponge-rudist bioconstructions accumulated. Deposition of some calcarenite bedsets seems to have started near or closely after maximum progradation of each carbonate shelf in the eastern part of outcrop. The stratigraphic architecture of the Collades Member indicates, for the eastern outcrop sector, an east-west proximal-distal gradient, whereas the western sector records a west-east gradient. The opposite gradients result from outcrop intersection subparallel to oblique to general northward depositional dip, across two distinct shelf depositional systems.