Dixon T. Gevaña

Examining how long fallow swidden systems impact upon livelihood and ecosystem services outcomes compared with alternative land-uses in the uplands of Southeast Asia

Swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation has been practised in the uplands of Southeast Asia for centuries and is estimated to support up to 500 million people – most of whom are poor, natural resource reliant uplanders. Recently, however, dramatic land-use transformations have generated social, economic and ecological impacts that have affected the extent, practice and outcomes of swidden in the region. While certain socio-ecological trends are clear, how these broader land-use changes impact upon local livelihoods and ecosystem services remains uncertain. This systematic review protocol therefore proposes a methodological approach to analysing the evidence on the range of possible outcomes such land-use changes have on swidden and associated livelihood and ecosystem services over time and space.

Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines

ABSTRACT In the Philippines, many indigenous peoples such as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains have continued to thrive in their relatively remote yet self-sufficient communities. Notwithstanding the transformations of many indigenous knowledge systems, practices that help promote forest sustainability have remained intact. This article aims to identify and describe key indigenous practices in the woodlot and watersheds collectively known as muyong in Ifugao communities. Data were obtained through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with selected local farmers in Kiangan and Hungduan municipalities in Ifugao province. The recognition of the mutual connections between forests and rice terraces as a traditional belief is deeply ingrained in the heart and mind of Ifugaos. This tradition promotes sustainable forest management as expressed in their respect to customary laws pertaining to land rights, adoption of upland cultivation practices following soil and water conservation principles, stand management to promote ample supply of wood and fuel wood, and biodiversity protection. However, these knowledge systems are slowly disappearing due to the changing needs and interests of the indigenous peoples as well as the proliferation of government programmes to modernize farming technologies. Hence, the government, NGOs and other concerned stakeholders need to continuously support programmes in order to protect the aesthetic and traditional value of the Ifugao landscapes. EDITED BY John Parrotta

Philippines’ Mangrove Ecosystem: Status, Threats and Conservation

The Philippines has very rich biodiversity in terms of number and percentage. It is regarded as one of 17 mega biodiversity countries due to its geographical isolation, diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. It ranks fifth globally in terms of the number of plant species and maintains 5 % of the world’s flora. In mangroves alone, the country holds at least 50 % mangrove species of the world’s approximately 65 species. However, due to anthropogenic activities as well as natural disturbances, the country continues to lose its rich biodiversity resources including mangroves. This chapter revisits the status of Philippines’ mangroves, its current and future threats and analyzes the mechanisms on how various stakeholders put efforts to address those threats. We found out that while a number of successful conservation and restoration efforts have been made, there are still clear gaps on how different stakeholders can turn their commitments and initiatives into actions to conserve and rehabilitate Philippines’ mangrove for human well-being and sustainable development.

Land use characterization and change detection of a small mangrove area in Banacon Island, Bohol, Philippines using a maximum likelihood classification method

Geospatial information of small mangrove islands in the Philippines is usually lacking. Such information is vital to monitor mangrove cover change and craft plans for their sustainable management. This study was conducted to provide some land use information about Banacon Island in Bohol province. The island is renowned for its vast mangrove plantations, community-initiated reforestation, and double reef system. To determine the different forest land uses therein, the study employed a maximum likelihood classification method using two Landsat images of different periods. Results revealed three distinct forest land uses, namely: dense mature stand; dense intermediate stand; and sparse mangrove area. Land use change detection analysis was also conducted. Findings suggest that mangrove cover has generally improved from 1993 to 2004, as seen in the expansion of dense plantations over sparsely vegetated areas. Such change is attributable to continuous reforestation activities by the local community. Minor deforestation was also recorded due to various natural and anthropogenic causes. Comparing the area of deforestation with the increase in plantations, the results suggest that reforestation has compensated or exceeded the rate of cover loss. In order to further improve the geospatial results, the study recommends the use of high resolution images covering other years for better analysis of land use change.

Economic valuation for sustainable mangrove ecosystems management in Bohol and Palawan, Philippines.

The study used the total economic value as a framework for estimating the values of the different uses of mangroves in Palawan and Bohol, Philippines. Market surveys were conducted to estimate the revenues from the major mangrove products collected in the two study sites. Contingent valuation method and travel cost method questionnaires were used in the survey to determine the biodiversity and recreational values (in Philippine pesos or PHP). Results of the market survey showed that the highest direct use value per year was estimated for Banacon site in Bohol with PHP 33.368 million per year as compared to Kamuning site in Palawan (PHP 25.521 million). The highest value of benefit for Banacon came from crab catch with PHP 13.23 million. Mollusk catch gave higher benefits to Kamuning, amounting to PHP 17.65 million. In terms of the values of benefits from shrimp and fish catch, the values for Banacon were higher than those in Kamuning site (PHP 8.06 million and PHP 6.38 million, respectively for Banacon, and PHP 4.32 million and PHP 0.16 million, respectively, for Kamuning). Nipa thatch was the source of the third highest value of benefit for Kamuning amounting to PHP 2.42 million. The result of the contingent valuation analysis done (combining the data sets from Palawan and Bohol) using a least-squares method (i.e., bid function approach) showed a mean willingness-to-pay amount of PHP 44/month per individual. The different factors affecting the willingness to pay (25% level) include education, income and information (new). In terms of the recreation/ecotourism value of mangroves, the estimated values in Banacon, Bohol, and Kamuning, Palawan, were PHP 83,079 and PHP 2769, respectively.

Community-Based Mangrove Management in the Philippines: Experience and Challenges in the Context of Changing Climate

This chapter synthesizes the experiences and challenges in community-based mangrove management in the Philippines in the context of changing climate. Over the past three decades, mangrove rehabilitation and protection has received considerable attention considering its declining condition vis-a-vis its ability to provide a mix of environmental goods and services including the potential to reduce climate change impacts and disaster risks. Community-based approach was lauded as a sustainable strategy to revert degraded mangroves back to their once verdant condition. However, major issues emerged in view of unclear access and utilization rights of local communities over the mangrove trees they planted and the poor ecological outcomes of many rehabilitation projects. The chapter recommends key strategies to overcome these challenges toward a more sustainable community-based mangrove management in the country while fostering climate-resilient local communities.

Conserving Mangroves for Their Blue Carbon: Insights and Prospects for Community-Based Mangrove Management in Southeast Asia

Mangrove forests of Southeast Asia have significantly decreased to give way to more favored economic activities such as aquaculture production, rice farming, and very recently oil palm plantation development. The severe cover loss implies the serious reduction of essential ecosystem services, particularly climate change mitigation. This chapter therefore sought to synthesize and describe the blue carbon stock potential of the region’s mangrove forests, in the context of developing community-based payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes that could offset the declining trend. Estimates showed that Southeast Asian mangroves could store as much as a kiloton carbon stock per hectare, an ecosystem value that is worth sustaining. Lessons learned from pilot PES projects has revealed some governance concerns that need to be addressed in order to ensure the benefits and commitment of local communities in forest conservation. These include: (1) clarification of tenure rights; (2) provision of equitable financial incentives to offset mangrove-degrading livelihoods; (3) development of appropriate and acceptable methodologies to account and trade blue carbon credits; (4) inclusion of local needs and interests in PES program and other coastal resource management plans; and (5) ecological considerations in plantation development. Some of the helpful policy and institutional recommendations to overcome these challenges include: (1) stronger incorporation of mangroves into marine protected areas; (2) full adoption of community-based mangrove management approach to further improve local capacities to manage mangroves; and (3) forging private sector partnership to support the blue carbon project.

Stand density management and blue carbon stock of monospecific mangrove plantation in Bohol, Philippines

Abstract Blue carbon pertains to carbon stock that is stored by marine ecosystems including mangrove forest. Density and blue carbon stock assessment was conducted covering mature Rhizophora stylosa Griff. plantations in Bohol, Philippines. Three stand types were assessed: thinned mature stand (0.34 tree m−2 at 55 years old; 35 ha); non-thinned mature stand (1.2 tree m−2 at 55 years old; 20 ha) and young stand (2.6 tree m−2 at 20 years old; 150 ha). These plantations were initially established with a plant spacing of 0.5 m × 0.5 m. Non-destructive plot sampling technique was used to account biomass and carbon stocks of trees and sediments. Five (5) sample plots measuring 200 m2 were allocated for each stand type. Results showed that the total carbon stock of plantations amassed to 64.5 ktC or 236.6 ktCO2e. More than half (at least 54%) of this stock is imbedded in sediment. Individual accounts showed that carbon stock was largest in non-thinned stand with 435.2 tC ha−1, followed by thinned stand (408.5 tC ha−1) and young stand (276.8 tC ha−1). There was no significant difference between thinned and non-thinned mature stands carbon stocks. Such finding suggested the potential of having thinning intervention. Following the self-thinning rule of 1.1 to 1.3 tree m−2, the local community can harvest as much as 423 trees ha−1 yr−1 for 35 years starting at the plantation age of 20 years. Further, the additional carbon stock between the ages 20 to 55 years could reach about 580 tCO2e ha−1 with an economic value of USD 2,962 ha−1. With this potential benefits, it is recommended that Banacon Island should pursue a carbon offset project for its plantations.