Dominic J. McCafferty

One for all and all for one: the energetic benefits of huddling in endotherms

Huddling can be defined as “an active and close aggregation of animals”. It is a cooperative group behaviour, permitting individuals involved in social thermoregulation to minimize heat loss and thereby lower their energy expenditure, and possibly allowing them to reallocate the saved energy to other functions such as growth or reproduction. Huddling is especially important in the case of animals faced with high heat loss due to a high surface‐to‐volume ratio, poor insulation, or living in cold environments. Although numerous experimental studies have focused on the huddling behaviour of a wide range of species, to our knowledge, this is the first attempt to review the various implications of this widely used behavioural strategy.

Variation in foraging effort by lactating Antarctic fur seals : response to simulated increased foraging costs

Abstract Seasonally breeding predators, which are limited in the time available for provisioning young at a central location, and by the fasting abilities of the young, are likely to maximize energy delivery to the young by maximizing the rate of energy delivery averaged over the whole period of investment. Reduction in food availability or increased foraging costs will alter the optimal behavior of individuals. This study examined the behavioral adaptations of a diving predator, the Antarctic fur seal, to increased foraging costs during lactation. One group of mothers (n=5, treatment) was fitted with additional drag to increase the cost of transport in comparison with a control group (n=8). At the scales of the individual dives, the treatment group made more shorter, shallower (< 30 m) dives. Compensation for slower swimming speeds was achieved by diving at a steeper angle. Overall, diving behavior conformed to several specific theoretical predictions but there were also departures from theory, particularly concerning swimming speed during diving. Diving behavior appears to be adjusted to maximize the proportion of time spent at the bottom of dives. At the scale of diving bouts, no difference was observed between the treatment and control groups in terms of the frequency and duration of bouts and there was also no difference between the two groups in terms of the proportion of time spent diving. At the scale of complete foraging cycles, time taken to return to the pup was significantly longer in the treatment group but there was no difference in the rate of delivery of energy (measured from pup growth rate) to the pups in each group. Since mothers in the treatment group did not use significantly more body reserves, we conclude that behavioral adjustments at the scale of individual dives allowed mothers in the treatment group to compensate for the additional foraging costs. Pup growth rate appears to be less sensitive to the foraging conditions experienced by mothers than foraging trip duration.

Salmonella in sub-Antarctica : low heterogeneity in salmonella serotypes in South Georgian seals and birds

The number of human visitors to Antarctica is increasing rapidly, and with it a risk of introducing infectious organisms to native animals. To study the occurrence of salmonella serotypes in sub-Antarctic wildlife, faecal samples were collected from gentoo penguins, macaroni penguins, gray-headed albatrosses, black-browed albatrosses and Antarctic fur seals on Bird Island in the South Georgian archipelago during the austral summer of 1996 and 1998. In 1996, S. havana, S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis were isolated from 7% of gentoo penguins and 4% of fur seals. In 1998, however, 22% of fur seals were found to be infected with S. havana, S. enteritidis and S. newport. All isolates, except one, showed identical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis-patterns within each serotype, irrespective of sampling year and animal reservoir. No significant antibiotic resistance was found. The very low heterogeneity in the salmonella isolates found could either indicate a high genetic adaptation of the bacteria to the environment or a recent introduction of salmonella into the area.

THE USE OF IR THERMOGRAPHY TO MEASURE THE RADIATIVE TEMPERATURE AND HEAT LOSS OF A BARN OWL (TYTO ALBA)

Abstract Infrared (IR) thermography was used to identify the major sites of heat loss from a female barn owl at an air temperature of 17.6°C. When perched, the mean radiative temperature of the owl was 21.1°C (SD=3.5). The facial disc averaged 23.9°C (SD=9.1) and the temperature of the eyes was greater than 33°C. Images showed an area on the lower abdomen that was warmer than 27°C. During flight, the temperature of plumage overlying wing muscles was more than 30°C. The metabolic heat production of the barn owl was estimated to be 42 W m−2 (1.68 W) at 17.6°C which agreed with previous measurements of metabolism. Heat loss from the head was almost double that from the body as a whole, indicating the importance of reducing exposure of the head during roosting. The metabolic rate during flight was calculated to be 13×BMR ( Pennycuick, 1989 ). This suggested that barn owls lose considerable amounts of heat during prolonged periods of flight. It is hypothesised that by being active in cool nocturnal conditions, barn owls may exploit waste metabolic heat for thermoregulation.

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE AND DIET OF LEOPARD SEALS (HYDRURGA LEPTONYX) AT BIRD ISLAND, SOUTH GEORGIA

Seasonal haul-out patterns and diet of individually marked leopard seals ( Hydrurga leptonyx ) were investigated at Bird Island, South Georgia during the 1983–96 winters. A total of 2956 leopard seal sightings were made, and 121 seals were tagged during the study, mainly between 1993 and 1996. Photographs of scars and pelage patterns were also used to identify a subset of these individuals across years, which provided no evidence of tag loss between or within years. Leopard seals were observed between April and November; the mean time between the first and last sightings in each year was 208 d (s d ± 48). Between 1993–96, eight seals were resident around the island for more than 100 d, and the longest recorded residence was 130 d. The proportion of tagged seals resighted was 0.35 and 0.17 in 1995 and 1996 respectively. Based on estimates of body length, 70% were not sexually mature. There was considerable inter-annual variation in abundance, with a maximum of 502 sightings during 1994, compared with a minimum of 21 during 1986 and 1989. Antarctic fur seals ( Arctocephalus gazella ) were the main prey item (58% of kills observed and 53% of scats). Other items included penguins (28% of kills observed and 20% of scats) and fish (24% of scats). Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba ), southern elephant seals ( Mirounga leonina ) and seabirds other than penguins were also present in the diet in small quantities.

Isolation and characterization of Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni from macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) in the subantarctic region.

ABSTRACT On Bird Island, South Georgia, albatrosses (n = 140), penguins (n = 100), and fur seals (n = 206) were sampled for Campylobacter jejuni. C. jejuni subsp. jejuni was recovered from three macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus). These isolates, the first reported for the subantarctic region, showed low genetic diversity and high similarity to Northern Hemisphere C. jejuni isolates, possibly suggesting recent introduction to the area.

Estimating metabolic heat loss in birds and mammals by combining infrared thermography with biophysical modelling.

Infrared thermography (IRT) is a technique that determines surface temperature based on physical laws of radiative transfer. Thermal imaging cameras have been used since the 1960s to determine the surface temperature patterns of a wide range of birds and mammals and how species regulate their surface temperature in response to different environmental conditions. As a large proportion of metabolic energy is transferred from the body to the environment as heat, biophysical models have been formulated to determine metabolic heat loss. These models are based on heat transfer equations for radiation, convection, conduction and evaporation and therefore surface temperature recorded by IRT can be used to calculate heat loss from different body regions. This approach has successfully demonstrated that in birds and mammals heat loss is regulated from poorly insulated regions of the body which are seen to be thermal windows for the dissipation of body heat. Rather than absolute measurement of metabolic heat loss, IRT and biophysical models have been most useful in estimating the relative heat loss from different body regions. Further calibration studies will improve the accuracy of models but the strength of this approach is that it is a non-invasive method of measuring the relative energy cost of an animal in response to different environments, behaviours and physiological states. It is likely that the increasing availability and portability of thermal imaging systems will lead to many new insights into the thermal physiology of endotherms.

Salmonella enteritidis in Antarctica: zoonosis in man or humanosis in penguins?

Imported anthropogenic bacteria may survive the Antarctic winter and introduce new genes into local bacterial communities

Emperor penguin body surfaces cool below air temperature

Emperor penguins Aptenodytes forsteri are able to survive the harsh Antarctic climate because of specialized anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations for minimizing heat loss. Heat transfer theory predicts that metabolic heat loss in this species will mostly depend on radiative and convective cooling. To examine this, thermal imaging of emperor penguins was undertaken at the breeding colony of Pointe Géologie in Terre Adélie (66°40′ S 140° 01′ E), Antarctica in June 2008. During clear sky conditions, most outer surfaces of the body were colder than surrounding sub-zero air owing to radiative cooling. In these conditions, the feather surface will paradoxically gain heat by convection from surrounding air. However, owing to the low thermal conductivity of plumage any heat transfer to the skin surface will be negligible. Future thermal imaging studies are likely to yield further insights into the adaptations of this species to the Antarctic climate.

Private Heat for Public Warmth: How Huddling Shapes Individual Thermogenic Responses of Rabbit Pups

Background Within their litter, young altricial mammals compete for energy (constraining growth and survival) but cooperate for warmth. The aim of this study was to examine the mechanisms by which huddling in altricial infants influences individual heat production and loss, while providing public warmth. Although considered as a textbook example, it is surprising to note that physiological mechanisms underlying huddling are still not fully characterised. Methodology/Principal Findings The brown adipose tissue (BAT) contribution to energy output was assessed as a function of the ability of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) pups to huddle (placed in groups of 6 and 2, or isolated) and of their thermoregulatory capacities (non-insulated before 5 days old and insulated at ca. 10 days old). BAT contribution of pups exposed to cold was examined by combining techniques of infrared thermography (surface temperature), indirect calorimetry (total energy expenditure, TEE) and telemetry (body temperature). Through local heating, the huddle provided each pup whatever their age with an ambient “public warmth” in the cold, which particularly benefited non-insulated pups. Huddling allowed pups facing a progressive cold challenge to buffer the decreasing ambient temperature by delaying the activation of their thermogenic response, especially when fur-insulated. In this way, huddling permitted pups to effectively shift from a non-insulated to a pseudo-insulated thermal state while continuously allocating energy to growth. The high correlation between TEE and the difference in surface temperatures between BAT and back areas of the body reveals that energy loss for non-shivering thermogenesis is the major factor constraining the amount of energy allocated to growth in non-insulated altricial pups. Conclusions/Significance By providing public warmth with minimal individual costs at a stage of life when pups are the most vulnerable, huddling buffers cold challenges and ensures a constant allocation of energy to growth by reducing BAT activation.