Don C. Fowles

Application of a behavioral theory of motivation to the concepts of anxiety and impulsivity

Abstract Grays model has been employed in attempts to formulate theories concerning the processes underlying various types of psychopathology. In the most direct application of his model, the dominant mood is assumed to reflect the strength of the underlying motivational system—i.e., strong anxiety with a strong behavioral inhibition system (BIS), strong positive affect with a strong behavioral activation system (BAS). This approach would predict strong anxiety to be associated with a dominance of passive avoidance and extinction and, similarly, strong positive affect with a dominance of impulsivity and other approach behaviors. The present paper has argued that these expectations are based on an implicit assumption that equally stressful environments are encountered—an assumption that would be undermined by individual differences in the very motivational systems under consideration. Examination of the approach-avoidance conflict paradigm supported the argument that, at least in the case of anxiety, one should not expect a strong association between behavior and motivational states. In particular, a weak behavioral inhibition system or strong behavioral activation system is likely to facilitate anxiety-producing impulsive behavior, whereas a strong behavioral inhibition system or weak behavioral activation system may facilitate anxiety-reducing cautious behavior. Other factors were also thought to promote independence of affective states and behavioral traits across individuals. On this argument, trait anxiety conceptualized as resulting from a strong BIS may not be highly correlated with frequent anxiety. Stating this another way, the behavioral correlates of a dominant BIS may be relatively independent of a trait involving a dominance of anxious mood. Using Tellegens (1985) discussion of self-report measures of mood and personality traits, it was proposed that the trait factor of Constraint may be more strongly associated with behavioral consequences of the BAS and BIS, whereas the Negative Emotionality dimension is largely unrelated to the behavioral effects of the BIS. Since Negative Emotionality corresponds to the traditional anxiety/neuroticism factor, this proposal differs from the customary assumptions about the alignment of Grays motivational systems and personality traits. The personality trait of Positive Emotionality (cf. extraversion) may be associated with individual differences in the strength of the BAS, with both affective and behavioral components. Thus, the hypothesis of motivational-behavioral uncoupling offers an alternative to the usual intepretations of the three major dimensions seen in most personality inventories. Unfortunately, it remains unclear as to how well the three major personality traits (Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint) are aligned with the hypothesized underlying motivational dimensions, and any hypotheses must be seen as extremely tentative. Finally, the question of the validity of self-report measures was discussed briefly. Of greatest interest is the possibility that a subset of subjects are unable to accurately report their emotional states, and that methods are available for identifying these individuals. If so, the validity of these self-report measures may be significantly improved, facilitating research on anxiety and impulsivity.

Progress in electrodermal research

Methodological Issues: Electrodermal Mechanisms R. Edelberg. Methological Issues in Electrodermal Measurements W. Boucsein. Neural Control of EDA: Neural Control of Electrodermal Activity J.C. Roy, et al. Cortical and HypthalamoLimbic Control of Electrodermal Responses H. Sequeira, J.C. Roy. General Psychophysiology: Electrodermal Habituation Patterns R. Baltissen. Electrodermal Response Lability-Stability A. Cridder. Psychopathology: Electrodermal Indices as Markers for the Development of Schizophrenia P.H. Venables. Electrodermal Activity and Antisocial Behavior D.C. Fowles. Electrodermal Activity and Hemispherical Asymetry: The Laterality of Electrodermal Responses J. Gruzelier. Brain Asymmetry and Autonomic Conditioning K. Hugdahl, B.H. Johnsen. 13 additional articles. Index.

Biological Variables in Psychopathology: A Psychobiological Perspective

In this chapter, we have reviewed the behavior genetic literature for a number of the major forms of child and adult psychopathology, including schizophrenia, schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and schizotypal personality; affective and anxiety disorders in both children and adults; and the childhood disruptive disorders ADHD, ODD, and CD. Unfortunately, space limitations precluded our review of behavior genetic research on other important disorders, such as autism, substance abuse and dependence, and personality disorders. We also provided background material on the statistical methods used in contemporary twin studies to conduct univariate and multivariate behavior genetic analyses, as well as a brief discussion of some exciting new and future directions in behavior genetic studies of psychopathology. The latter included genetic and environmental influences on normal range variation and on the disordered extreme, the inclusion of specific environmental and endophenotypic variables in behavior genetic models, molecular genetic studies of psychopathology, and the examination of genotype-environment interaction and correlation. These future directions will facilitate the progression of behavior genetic studies of psychopathology beyond the simple estimation of broad, abstract genetic and environmental variance components for a single disorder to the examination of more complex models for the specific etiological mechanisms that underlie disorders and their overlap.

Electrodermal hyporeactivity and antisocial behavior: Does anxiety mediate the relationship?

Electrodermal hyporeactivity in the anticipation of aversive stimuli is a highly reliable correlate of diagnosed psychopathy and undersocialized aggressive conduct disorder (UACD), and it has been interpreted as reflecting a weak behavioral inhibition system (BIS) as conceptualized in Grays work (e.g., in: Royce, J.R. (Ed.), Multivariate Analysis and Psychological Theory. Academic Press, New York, NY, p. 409, 1973). This interpretation predicts that electrodermal hyporeactivity should be associated with a single dimension of temperament involving both low anxiety and behavioral disinhibition. However, temperament scales identify separate dimensions of trait anxiety/neuroticism and inhibitory control, and most investigators have assumed that the BIS is associated with the trait anxiety/neuroticism dimension. The present review supports the view that electrodermal hyporeactivity is associated with both low anxiety and disinhibition, as expected, and, possibly, with poor control of emotional expression. Additionally, electrodermal hyporeactivity appears to relate to an impulsivity dimension among psychopaths rather than to the core personality features of psychopathy. Recent findings raise the possibility that psychopaths suffer from a broader deficit (sometimes described as an executive function deficit) than a weak BIS and that electrodermal hyporeactivity might relate to this broader deficit. It is proposed that problems with impulsivity are more strongly documented than the broader concept of executive function deficits and that a primary disinhibition can produce secondary executive function deficits. A disinhibitory deficit is consistent with the weak BIS hypothesis. Overall, the results appear to be consistent with the electrodermal hyporeactivity-weak BIS hypothesis, but many issues remain to be resolved.

Temperament as a moderator of pathways to conscience in children: The contribution of electrodermal activity

A longitudinal study (G. K. Kochanska, 1997) showed that temperamental fearfulness, assessed at toddler age via observational data and maternal ratings, moderated pathways to internalized conscience at age 4. For fearful children, maternal gentle discipline deemphasizing power predicted conscience development; for fearless children, attachment security predicted conscience development. Electrodermal reactivity assessed at age 4 on the same children was used as a physiological reflection of fearful temperament and was substituted for the earlier fearfulness measure to test the theoretical model. As expected, for electrodermally reactive children, maternal gentle discipline predicted conscience, whereas for nonreactive children, attachment security predicted conscience. The findings support the notions of (a) electrodermal reactivity at an early age as a correlate of temperament, (b) temperament as a moderator of socialization in early moral development, and (c) lovelessness in psychopathic individuals as an index of the failure of the alternative pathway (via attachment) to conscience in fearless children.

Electrodermal activity and temperament in preschool children.

This study had two objectives: To examine poorly understood patterns of young childrens electrodermal reactivity and to test the hypothesis that this reactivity reflects individual differences in the behavioral inhibition system (BIS). We recorded skin conductance responses (SCRs) from 92 4-year-old children during a laboratory session that encompassed physiological and psychological stimuli. Physiological stimuli (breaths), moderately loud to loud sounds (expected and unexpected) and, to a lesser extent, stimuli with psychological significance elicited clear SCRs. Induction of psychological conflict and exposure to emotional film clips for the most part did not elicit increases in skin conductance (SC). Childrens temperament dimensions of fearfulness and effortful (or inhibitory) control--two components of the BIS--were assessed using robust observational batteries at age 2 and 4 years. The theoretically expected correlations between overall SC lability (reflecting SC levels) and both dimensions of temperament were significant, albeit modest and limited to the contemporaneous measures at age 4.

Temperament and Psychopathy A Dual-Pathway Model

The concept of psychopathy refers to a pattern of chronic antisocial behavior and personality features, such as emotional detachment, lovelessness, and guiltlessness, attributable in part to a temperament deficit. Historically, that deficit has been seen as a low reactivity to fear, but recent research has documented a second temperament deficit in adults that involves poor emotional and behavioral control. Both pathways are found in the child psychopathology literature, pointing to multifactorial developmental pathways from childhood to adult psychopathy.

Electrodermal Activity and Antisocial Behavior: Empirical Findings and Theoretical Issues

A common finding in psychophysiological approaches to psychopathology has been that of electrodermal hyporeactivity among individuals variously described as psychopathic, sociopathic, antisocial, delinquent, hyperactive, or aggressive. The present chapter will review this literature. Special attention will be given to the conditions under which electrodermal hyporesponsivity is seen and the potential theoretical interpretations of the hyporesponsivity.

Dual temperamental risk factors for psychopathic personality: Evidence from self-report and skin conductance.

Psychopathy is a personality disorder consisting of dysfunctional affective interpersonal features (Factor 1) and impulsive-antisocial behavior (Factor 2) that exhibit differential associations with palmar skin conductance (SC) reactivity. The goal of this study was to determine whether the distinct SC reactivity observed in incarcerated psychopaths generalizes to university students who score high on personality dimensions hypothesized to be the risk factors for these psychopathy factors. Lilienfelds Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) was used to compute scores on 2 factor-analytically derived dimensions that have been the focus of recent research in psychopathy. PPI-1 is hypothesized to relate to the low-fear temperamental risk factor, whereas PPI-2 is hypothesized to relate to regulatory dysfunction. SC reactivity was measured during tasks previously used in studies of diagnosed psychopaths. Results indicated that PPI-1 was associated with reduced SC during anticipation of an aversive noise and PPI-2 was associated with enhanced SC reactivity during presentation of a speech about ones faults. Additional analyses explored an 8-factor solution of the PPI and 3 temperament dimensions derived from factor analysis of several personality measures. Together, the SC results suggest that the Factor 1 pathway, best captured with refined assessments of behavioral fearlessness, related to reduced SC reactivity to an aversive noise-consistent with a weak defense system. The Factor 2 pathway, best captured by higher order dimensions reflecting externalizing, disinhibited forms of negative temperament, related to enhanced SC reactivity to a speech stressor-consistent with high stress reactivity.

The influence of introversion/extraversion on the skin conductance response to stress and stimulus intensity ☆

Abstract A series of studies compared skin conductance level (SCL) for introverts and extraverts during a series of tones varying in both stimulus intensity (SI) and the amount of stress preceding the tones. When a difficult paired-associate task preceded the tones, both groups were about the same for 83 dB tones but extraverts were much higher at 103 dB, introverts failing to show an increase as a function of SI. There were no differences between the two groups following a simple paired-associate task, both groups showing a similar increase with increased SI. Finally, SCL was higher for introverts than extraverts during tones preceded by a rest period, and this was especially true for the early trials and for lower SI (75 and 83 dB compared with 100 and 103 dB). Taken together, these results suggest that SCL is higher for extraverts at higher levels of arousal but that the reverse is true for lower levels of arousal. This relationship is consistent with the theory that introverts have a “weak nervous system” which develops transmarginal or protective inhibition under stress.