Donald G. Klepser

Comprehensive Medication Therapy Management: Identifying and Resolving Drug-Related Issues in a Community Pharmacy

OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to characterize comprehensive medication therapy management (MTM) involving a community pharmacy and local physicians by describing the drug-related issues encountered, identifying which medication types were associated with these issues, and listing the actions taken by physicians and pharmacists to address them. METHODS In the MTM program studied, community pharmacists and physicians worked together to manage the drug therapy of ambulatory Iowa Medicaid recipients dispensed > or =4 medications for chronic conditions by a community pharmacy. After initial assessment, pharmacists made written recommendations to the patients physician, and the physicians subsequently responded. Data were extracted from pharmacy records for patients who made > or =1 visit during the first 2 years of the program. Collected data included patient demographics, number of chronic conditions and medications at enrollment, type and number of drug-related issues, medication category, pharmacist recommendations, and physician acceptance of recommendations. RESULTS Data were gathered for 150 patients. The mean (SD) age was 54.4 (19.4) years and 74.0% were female. They were taking a mean (SD) of 9.3 (4.6) medications and had a mean (SD) of 6.1 (3.1) medical conditions at enrollment. A total of 886 drug-related issues were classified into 7 categories: inappropriate adherence (25.9%), needs additional therapy (22.0%), wrong drug (13.2%), unnecessary drug therapy (12.9%), adverse drug reaction (11.1%), dose too low (9.7%), and dose too high (5.3%). Overall, physicians accepted 313 (47.4%) of the 659 recommendations to alter drug therapy made by pharmacists, with the highest rates of agreement to stop or change a medication (50.3% and 50.0%, respectively) and the lowest rate of agreement to start a new medication (41.7%). CONCLUSION The MTM program showed that drug therapy for ambulatory patients taking multiple medications to treat chronic conditions can be improved through collaboration between physicians and community pharmacists.

Reduction in mortality associated with statin therapy in patients with severe sepsis.

Study Objective. To evaluate the effect of 3‐hydroxy‐3‐methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) on mortality in patients with severe sepsis.

The effect of physician and health plan market concentration on prices in commercial health insurance markets

The objective of this paper is to describe the market structure of health plans (HPs) and physician organizations (POs) in California, a state with high levels of managed care penetration and selective contracting. First we calculate Herfindahl–Hirschman (HHI) concentration indices for HPs and POs in 42 California counties. We then estimate a multivariable regression model to examine the relationship between concentration measures and the prices paid by HPs to POs. Price data is from Medstat MarketScan databases. The findings show that any California counties exhibit what the Department of Justice would consider high HHI concentration measures, in excess of 1,800. More than three quarters of California counties exhibit HP concentration indices over 1,800, and 83% of counties have PO concentration levels in excess of 1,800. Half of the study counties exhibited PO concentration levels in excess of 3,600, compared to only 24% for plans. Multivariate price models suggest that PO concentration is associated with higher physician prices (p ≤0.05), whereas HP concentration does not appear to be significantly associated with higher outpatient commercial payer prices.

Antimicrobial Stewardship in Outpatient Settings: Leveraging Innovative Physician-Pharmacist Collaborations to Reduce Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is one of the worlds most pressing public health problems. Historically, most drug-resistant bacteria have emerged in hospital settings, yet the vast majority of antimicrobials used in humans in the United States are administered in outpatient settings. Strong collaboration between physicians and pharmacists in the development of antimicrobial stewardship programs in outpatient settings is thus a critical strategy for curtailing antibiotic resistance. Recently, pilot projects have been launched in 3 states that pair physicians and community pharmacists under a Collaborative Practice Agreement (CPA) to treat patients with influenza and group A Streptococcus (GAS) pharyngitis. Under this model, community pharmacists use rapid point-of-care tests to guide clinical decision making and initiate treatment as appropriate under a physician-led, evidence-based protocol. Experience with this research initiative has suggested this model can lead to more judicious use of antibiotics and antivirals, improve public health, and provide safe and convenient care for patients.

Effectiveness of a pharmacist-physician collaborative program to manage influenza-like illness

OBJECTIVES To examine the effectiveness of collaborative physician-community pharmacist programs to treat influenza-like illness (ILI) with respect to clinical outcomes and health care utilization. DESIGN Prospective multicenter cohort study. SETTING Fifty-five pharmacies in Michigan, Minnesota, and Nebraska. PATIENTS Adult patients presenting to the pharmacy with ILI during the 2013-14 influenza season (October 1, 2013 to May 30, 2014). INTERVENTION Pharmacists screened adult patients presenting with ILI, completed a brief physical assessment, performed a point-of-care rapid influenza diagnostic test (RIDT), and provided appropriate referral or treatment per an established collaborative practice agreement (CPA) with a licensed prescriber. Pharmacists followed-up with patients 24 to 48 hours after the encounter to assess patient status and possible need for further intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Number of patients screened, tested, and treated for influenza. RESULTS Of the 121 patients screened, 45 (37%) were excluded and referred to their primary care provider or an urgent care facility for management. Of the 75 patients (62%) eligible for participation, 8 (11%) had a positive RIDT and were managed according to the CPA. Of the patients tested, 34.6% had no primary care physician and 38.7% visited the pharmacy outside of normal office hours. Only 3% of patients reported feeling worse at follow-up. CONCLUSION This study describes a physician-pharmacist collaborative model for treating ILI. Using an evidence-based CPA, pharmacists were able to provide timely treatment to patients with and without influenza.

Factors affecting demand among older adults for medication therapy management services

BACKGROUND Medicare Part D took effect in January 2006 with requirements for prescription drug plans to provide medication therapy management (MTM) services to targeted Medicare beneficiaries. The use of Medicare Part D MTM is voluntary by Medicare beneficiaries and no research evidence is available that can inform policy makers of the beneficiary and provider access-level circumstances under which older adults are more likely to demand MTM-like services. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to describe the effects of the characteristics of older adults and their provider access on the demand for MTM services using data from a unique pre-Medicare Part D program for Medicare-eligible older adults in Iowa. METHODS A retrospective cohort study using enrollment, claims, and provider data from the Iowa Priority Prescription Savings (IP) Program. The dependent variable was whether the IP members obtained the MTM service offered by the program. Logistic regression was used to assess whether IP member characteristics and their provider access affected the probability of the IP member to obtain the MTM service. RESULTS Demand for the service varied with IP member age, gender, monthly number of drugs taken, monthly prescription drug spending, self-reported health status, having alternative insurance, and seeing multiple physicians. Increased access to pharmacies promoting the service increased IP member demand. CONCLUSION The demand for MTM-like services varies with the characteristics of older adults and their access to providers that promote the service. Older adults who view themselves as sicker and those with more complex medication regimens appear more likely to demand a service, suggesting that the benefits of the service are either more important or more recognizable to them. However, it appears that older adults require contact with pharmacies that promote MTM services to recognize this value.

Community pharmacist–physician collaborative streptococcal pharyngitis management program

OBJECTIVES To describe patient outcomes associated with a community pharmacy-based, collaborative physician-pharmacist group A Streptococcus (GAS) management program. SETTING Fifty-five chain and independent community pharmacies in Michigan, Minnesota, and Nebraska. PRACTICE INNOVATION Pharmacists screened clinically stable adult patients who presented with signs and symptoms consistent with GAS pharyngitis from October 1, 2013, to August 1, 2014, by means of Centor criteria, and performed a physical assessment followed by a rapid antigen detection test (RADT) for eligible patients. Patients were treated according to a collaborative practice agreement (CPA) with a licensed prescriber or a physician consult site model. Pharmacists followed up with patients 24-48 hours after the encounter to assess patient status and possible need for further intervention. EVALUATION Number of patients screened, tested, and treated, and health care utilization. RESULTS Of 316 patients screened, 43 (13.6%) were excluded and referred for care. Of 273 patients (86.4%) eligible for testing, 48 (17.6%) had positive test results and 46 (16.8%) received amoxicillin or azithromycin per the CPA. Of those tested, 43.2% had no primary provider and 43.9% visited the pharmacy outside of traditional clinic office hours. CONCLUSION Pharmacists demonstrated the ability and capacity to provide care for patients seeking treatment for pharyngitis. The number of patients without a primary care provider and seen at the pharmacy outside of normal office hours highlights the improved access that community pharmacy-based care offers.

U.S. community pharmacies as CLIA-waived facilities: Prevalence, dispersion, and impact on patient access to testing

BACKGROUND The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 (CLIA) enabled greater access to low-risk tests by allowing their use in facilities with a Certificate of Waiver in the U.S. Community pharmacies are among the most accessible health professionals, and they are increasingly offering CLIA-waived tests. This manuscript aims to determine: 1) the current number of pharmacies in the United States with CLIA-waivers; 2) the uptake of CLIA-waivers by different pharmacy store types; and 3) the state-by-state differences in the percentage of pharmacies with a CLIA-waiver. METHODS Data were collected from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CLIA Laboratory Search website on May 3rd, 2015. The website allows for exportation of demographic data on all CLIA-waived facilities by state. RESULTS Pharmacies are currently the fourth highest-ranking facility of CLIA-waived laboratories with 10,838 locations. Supermarkets had the highest percentage of pharmacies with a CLIA-waiver (43.16%). States demonstrated considerable variability in the percentage of pharmacies with a CLIA-waiver, with a median percentage of 19.56% (0%-60.00% range). CONCLUSIONS Community pharmacies are currently a leading facility for CLIA-waived laboratories. Substantial state-level variation is observed in the percentage of pharmacies with CLIA-waivers, and these differences may be driven by restrictions in state law or regulations.

Trends in Community Pharmacy Counts and Closures Before and After the Implementation of Medicare Part D

PURPOSE Medicare Part D provided 3.4 million American seniors with prescription drug insurance. It may also have had an unintended effect on pharmacy viability. This study compares trends in the number of pharmacies and rate of pharmacy closures before and after the implementation of Medicare Part D. METHODS This retrospective observational study used data from National Council for Prescription Drug Programs (NCPDP) to track retail pharmacy closures and counts between January 2004 and January 2009. Pharmacies were classified by ownership (chain or independent), location (urban or rural), and whether they were the only pharmacy in a community. Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models were used to examine trends in pharmacy counts and closures. FINDINGS The number of independent and rural pharmacies decreased significantly after the implementation of Medicare Part D. The number of communities that saw their only pharmacy close also increased. CONCLUSIONS Unintended consequences of Medicare Part D may serve to reduce patient access to pharmacy services in opposition to the stated goals of the program.

Retail Pharmacy Market Structure and Performance

Substantial variation has been observed in the use of prescription drugs from retail pharmacies, the level of services provided by retail pharmacies, and the prices paid for prescriptions from retail pharmacies. It is not clear whether local area retail pharmacy market structures affect these pharmacy outcomes. The goal of this paper is to discuss the potential research avenues to address these issues. The discussion provides: 1) background on the retail pharmacy and its place within the pharmaceutical supply chain; 2) a discussion of the data that are available to address these issues and the measures that can be developed from these data; and 3) a review of existing research findings and gaps in knowledge.