Donald G. Unger

Supporting Families under Stress: The Role of Social Networks.

The role of family social networks in mediating the effects of stress has been underscored in the literature. Drawing from sociological and psychological studies, this paper examines the strong positive relationship between social networks and a familys adaptation to societal crises, life transitions and family conflicts. Who helps and when, the types of support offered and given, the conditions influencing the use and effect of networks, and the implications for professional intervention are discussed.

Partner and grandmother contact in black and white teen parent families

Contact of teen mothers with grandmothers and partners was studied as a predictor of maternal and middle childhood developmental outcomes. Mothers were interviewed yearly beginning in 1979 until 1986. Each child was given a developmental assessment in 1986. Black teens lived longer with their parents after the childs birth and white teens married earlier and had more disruptions in their relationships. Grandmother assistance with childcare was positively associated with the mothers ability to pursue her education. The findings suggested, however, that child developmental problems may occur when mothers routinely rely upon grandmother assistance into middle childhood, particularly for white families. In general, a male partner who had regular contact with the mothers child, more stimulation and support in the home environment, and higher educational level of the mother were associated with better child developmental outcomes.

THE ROLE OF FAMILY SUPPORT IN DETERMINING DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES IN CHILDREN OF TEEN MOTHERS

Children from teen parent families are impaired developmentally compared to children of older mothers. Family support has frequently been proposed as a mediator of the stress that teen parents experience as a result of teen parenthood. This longitudinal study investigates the role of family support factors and maternal characteristics in relation to child outcomes (6–7 year old children) in teen parent families. Two models outlining the role of partner and grandmother family support are proposed to explain the process by which child development occurs within the family contexts of teen families. Implications of the results for intervention are discussed.

Views about Planning for the Future among Parents and Siblings of Adults with Mental Retardation.

There has been an increasing prevalence of adult persons with mental retardation remaining with their natural families throughout most of their adult lives (Seltzer & Krauss, 1989). Families who might have chosen to institutionalize their family members in the past now keep them at home. This has been in response to a community-based, least restrictive approach to care and treatment, an increase in the life span of persons with mental retardation, and continuing cutbacks in funding for institutional facilities (Turnbull, Brotherson, & Summers, 1985). The circumstances and sensitive issues that families with adult-children with mental retardation face are extremely complex. Parents have unique and demanding caregiving responsibilities. The special nature of their position is particularly notable at the onset of their childrens adolescence and entry into adulthood (Wikler, 1986). Although other parents of adolescents look forward to their childrens independence, these parents face five to six decades of providing direct care for their aging children (Seltzer & Krauss, 1983). These parents also have to cope with the normative stressors associated with their own aging (Seltzer & Krauss, 1989; Zarit, Todd, & Zarit, 1986), along with the challenges of their continued parenting responsibilities. With parenting remaining a central part of their identity (Seltzer & Krauss, 1989), they often experience a lack of leisure time and personal freedom, chronic sorrow, and in. creased levels of distress (Holroyd, 1974; Minnes, 1988). A major responsibility of parents with children with mental retardation is to ensure a stable living arrangement as their children become adults. If families decide out of exasperation and/or financial constraints that they can no longer provide in-home care for their adult-children, they face the additional stress of long waiting lists for residential placement in group homes or other facilities. Should one or both of the parents die or become disabled, the lack of placement options available becomes an even greater crisis. While there are no simple solutions to the problems that arise in such families, careful planning for the future or permanency planning, which considers the entire familys needs and concerns, is likely to be very helpful (Powell & Gallagher, 1993). Siblings, in particular, are important sources of support for adult-children with mental retardation and can contribute to future planning (Seltzer, Begun, Seltzer, & Krauss, 1991). Normative relationships between siblings are frequently important, extensive, and lifelong (Edmundson, 1985; Lamb & Sutton-Smith, 1982; Seltzer et al., 1991). In families with adult-children with mental retardation, siblings can act as parental surrogates, caretakers, or siblings (Edmundson, 1985). While many parents have increasingly higher expectations of siblings to become more involved in caregiving as the children with mental retardation grow older, siblings are typically only minimally involved in the planning process (Edmundson, 1985). This lack of involvement can add to the guilt, anger, role confusion, ambivalence, and family conflict often experienced by siblings without disabilities (Begun, 1989; Cleveland & Miller, 1977; Lobato, 1983). Permanency planning can be a very difficult, emotional issue that engenders multiple feelings of guilt, relief, anxiety, and uncertainty. Stress and coping research, and caregiving and burden literature concerning families, particularly those with special needs, provides a framework for investigating the demanding task of permanency planning for families with adult children with mental retardation (Birkel, 1991; Kahana & Kinney, 1991; Seligman & Darling, 1991; Singer & Irvin, 1989). Previous research describing the care of children, particularly young children with mental retardation, or ill family members has clearly documented the great strain on parents and family members. …

Self-concept of African-American male youth: Self-esteem and ethnic identity

The role of perceived efficacy, parent support, and community involvement in the self-esteem and ethnic identity of 68 African-American male youth were investigated in this research. The results provided support for the distinctiveness of ethnic identity and self-esteem. A sense of mastery was positively associated with both self-esteem and ethnic identity. Parent support was associated with self-esteem, while community involvement and an appreciation of African-American heritage were positively related to ethnic identity. Implications for future research and the evaluation of prevention and support programs for youth are discussed.

The Role of Family Support in Interparental Conflict and Adolescent Academic Achievement

Family support was examined as a mediator of the relation between interparental conflict and adolescent academic achievement. Results indicated that two dimensions of family support, family cohesion and parent–school involvement, mediated the relation between interparental conflict and academic achievement. The results further suggested that family support was more likely to function as a mediator for girls than for boys. Lastly, in the presence of a mediating effect, a direct path remained between interparental conflict and grade point average.

Promoting Involvement Between Low-Income Single Caregivers and Urban Early Intervention Programs

By focusing on the roles of family characteristics, stress, and a programs organizational climate, this study investigated why some low-income single caregivers with children with disabilities tend to be more involved in early intervention services than others. The participants in this research were low-income single caregivers whose young children were enrolled for the first time in early intervention programs with opportunities for caregiver involvement. The results indicated direct effects for family characteristics in predicting caregiver/program involvement. Relationships between family characteristics and caregiver/program involvement were also moderated by parenting stress and perceptions of a supportive program climate. Implications for family-centered practice are discussed.

Motivation and Characteristics of Families Who Adopt Children with Special Needs An Empirical Study

In recent years, the field of adoption has begun to focus on the needs of the child rather than those of the parents through the advent of permanency planning and subsidized adoption of special needs children. Nontraditional parents (older, single, black, lower income) are adopting many of these children, often through the foster care system. The Special Needs Adoption Project, designed to provide a descriptive profile of adoptive families of special needs children, found that a majority of the adopted children were adopted by foster parents. These families were predominantly white, had a median annual income of about

Diverse Adaptations of Single Parent, Low-Income Families with Young Children: Implications for Community-Based Prevention and Intervention

19,000, and were frequently very active in their church. Additionally, there was a predominant family type: very adaptable, flexible, and having family members who were very close to one another.

Serving Children With Special Social and Emotional Needs: A Practical Approach to Evaluating Prevention Programs in Schools and Community Settings

SUMMARY Distinct family caregiving structures among low-income single parent families were identified. The relationships between these structures and family needs, social resources and family functioning were described. Unmarried low-income, primarily African-American mothers whose children were enrolled in community-based early childhood programs were interviewed. While global measures of functioning or distress were unrelated to type of family caregiving structure, there were significant differences with respect to specific sources of stress or conflict, stability of the caregiving structure across time, and perceived sources of primary support. Implications of these findings are discussed with respect to planning community-based services that build upon and strengthen family competencies.