Donald L. Compton

Quality Indicators for Group Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research in Special Education

This article presents quality indicators for experimental and quasi-experimental studies for special education. These indicators are intended not only to evaluate the merits of a completed research report or article but also to serve as an organizer of critical issues for consideration in research. We believe these indicators can be used widely, from assisting in the development of research plans to evaluating proposals. In this article, the framework and rationale is explained by providing brief descriptions of each indicator. Finally, we suggest a standard for determining whether a practice may be considered evidence-based. It is our intent that this standard for evidenced-based practice and the indicators be reviewed, revised as needed, and adopted by the field of special education.

The Prevention, Identification, and Cognitive Determinants of Math Difficulty.

This study examined the efficacy of preventive 1st-grade tutoring in mathematics, estimated the prevalence and severity of mathematics disability, and explored pretreatment cognitive characteristics associated with mathematics development. Participants were 564 first graders, 127 of whom were designated at risk (AR) for mathematics difficulty and randomly assigned to tutoring or control conditions. Before treatment, all participants were assessed on cognitive and academic measures. Tutoring occurred 3 times weekly for 16 weeks; treatment fidelity was documented; and math outcomes were assessed. Tutoring efficacy was supported on computation and concepts/applications, but not on fact fluency. Tutoring decreased the prevalence of math disability, with prevalence and severity varying as a function of identification method and math domain. Attention accounted for unique variance in predicting each aspect of end-of-year math performance. Other predictors, depending on the aspect of math performance, were nonverbal problem solving, working memory, and phonological processing.

The cognitive correlates of third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems

The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive correlates of 3rd-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Third graders (N = 312) were measured on language, nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, phonological decoding, and sight word efficiency as well as on arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Teacher ratings of inattentive behavior also were collected. Path analysis indicated that arithmetic was linked to algorithmic computation and to arithmetic word problems and that inattentive behavior independently predicted all 3 aspects of mathematics performance. Other independent predictors of arithmetic were phonological decoding and processing speed. Other independent predictors of arithmetic word problems were nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, sight word efficiency, and language.

Selecting At-Risk Readers in First Grade for Early Intervention: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Decision Rules and Procedures.

Response to intervention (RTI) models for identifying learning disabilities rely on the accurate identification of children who, without Tier 2 tutoring, would develop reading disability (RD). This study examined 2 questions concerning the use of 1st-grade data to predict future RD: (a) Does adding initial word identification fluency (WIF) and 5 weeks of WIF progress-monitoring data (WIF-Level and WIF-Slope) to a typical 1st-grade prediction battery improve RD prediction? and (b) Can classification tree analysis improve the prediction accuracy compared to logistic regression? Four classification models based on 206 1st-grade children followed through the end of 2nd grade were evaluated. A combination of initial WIF, WIF-Level, and WIF-Slope and classification tree analysis improved prediction sufficiently to recommend their use with RTI.

Responding to Nonresponders: An Experimental Field Trial of Identification and Intervention Methods:

First graders (N = 323) participated in an evidence-based classwide reading program (Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies; PALS). Adual-discrepancy approach was used to identify 56 children whose reading performance and growth rates were substantially below those of average readers, indicating they were not responding sufficiently to PALS. This approach reliably distinguished among unresponsive at-risk, responsive at-risk, and average-performing readers. Nonresponders were assigned randomly to one of three increasingly individualized treatments: PALS, Modified PALS, or tutoring by an adult. No statistically significant between-group differences on reading-related measures were found. Effect sizes (between .30 and .50) comparing groups and proportions of nonresponders following treatment suggest that tutoring was most promising for reducing unresponsiveness.

Identifying Reading Disabilities by Responsiveness-to-Instruction: Specifying Measures and Criteria.

First, we describe two types of assessment (problem solving and standard treatment protocol) within a “responsiveness-to-instruction” framework to identify learning disabilities. We then specify two necessary components (measures and classification criteria) to assess responsiveness-to-instruction, and present pertinent findings from two related studies. These studies involve databases at grades 1 and 2, which were analyzed to compare the soundness of alternative methods of assessing instructional responsiveness to identify reading disabilities. Finally, conclusions are drawn and future research is outlined to prospectively and longitudinally explore classification issues that emerged from our analyses.

Do different types of school mathematics development depend on different constellations of numerical versus general cognitive abilities

The purpose of this study was to examine the interplay between basic numerical cognition and domain-general abilities (such as working memory) in explaining school mathematics learning. First graders (N = 280; mean age = 5.77 years) were assessed on 2 types of basic numerical cognition, 8 domain-general abilities, procedural calculations, and word problems in fall and then reassessed on procedural calculations and word problems in spring. Development was indexed by latent change scores, and the interplay between numerical and domain-general abilities was analyzed by multiple regression. Results suggest that the development of different types of formal school mathematics depends on different constellations of numerical versus general cognitive abilities. When controlling for 8 domain-general abilities, both aspects of basic numerical cognition were uniquely predictive of procedural calculations and word problems development. Yet, for procedural calculations development, the additional amount of variance explained by the set of domain-general abilities was not significant, and only counting span was uniquely predictive. By contrast, for word problems development, the set of domain-general abilities did provide additional explanatory value, accounting for about the same amount of variance as the basic numerical cognition variables. Language, attentive behavior, nonverbal problem solving, and listening span were uniquely predictive.

Modeling the relationship between growth in rapid naming speed and growth in decoding skill in first-grade children.

This study used an extant longitudinal correlational data set (D. L. Compton, 2000) to model the relationship between growth in decoding skill and growth in rapid automatized naming (RAN) in 1st-grade children. During an academic year, 75 1st-grade children were assessed 7 times (once per month) in word reading, nonword reading, RAN numbers, and RAN colors. Results indicated a unique relationship between RAN numbers and early decoding skill. A bidirectional relationship between decoding skill and RAN numbers was supported, with RAN performance prior to the acquisition of decoding skill predictive of future decoding skill and with increased growth in RAN facilitated by the acquisition of decoding skill. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Mathematics Screening and Progress Monitoring at First Grade: Implications for Responsiveness to Intervention:

The predictive utility of screening measures for forecasting math disability (MD) at the end of 2nd grade and the predictive and discriminant validity of math progress-monitoring tools were assessed. Participants were 225 students who entered the study in 1st grade and completed data collection at the end of 2nd grade. Screening measures were Number Identification/Counting, Fact Retrieval, Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) Computation, and CBM Concepts/Applications. For Number Identification/Counting and CBM Computation, 27 weekly assessments were also collected. MD was defined as below the 10th percentile at the end of 2nd grade on calculations and word problems. Logistic regression showed that the 4-variable screening model produced good and similar fits in accounting for MD—calculation and MD—word problems. Classification accuracy was driven primarily by CBM Concepts/Applications and CBM Computation; CBM Concepts/Applications was the better of these predictors. CBM Computation, but not Number Identification/Counting, demonstrated validity for progress monitoring.

Does Early Reading Failure Decrease Children's Reading Motivation?:

The authors used a pretest—posttest control group design with random assignment to evaluate whether early reading failure decreases childrens motivation to practice reading. First, they investigated whether 60 first-grade children would report substantially different levels of interest in reading as a function of their relative success or failure in learning to read. Second, they evaluated whether increasing the word reading ability of 15 at-risk children would lead to gains in their motivation to read. Multivariate analyses of variance suggest marked differences in both motivation and reading practice between skilled and unskilled readers. However, bolstering at-risk childrens word reading ability did not yield evidence of a causal relationship between early reading failure and decreased motivation to engage in reading activities. Instead, hierarchical regression analyses indicate a covarying relationship among early reading failure, poor motivation, and avoidance of reading.