Donald L. Sexton

Female and male entrepreneurs: Psychological characteristics and their role in gender-related discrimination

Abstract There is good news and bad news about actual gender-related managerial differences. The good news is that some do exist. The bad news is that they are overused as the basis for sexual stereotyping. The increase in the number of female entrepreneurs in the United States has been paralleled by an increase in academic research related to their activities. Published research studies of the female entrepreneur have ranged from psychological and demographic studies to perceived start-up obstacles. These studies gave rise to the perception that although male and female entrepreneurs possessed similar socioeconomic backgrounds, motivations and techniques, the female business owners have been subjected to gender-related discrimination. More recently, research studies have addressed the question, “Is the object of discrimination the woman or is it the type of firm she tends to initiate?” Studies have shown that both females and males possess the characteristics required for effective performance as managers. Yet negative attitudes toward females still exist. Trait analyses studies have found more similarities than differences between the two groups. However, a gap still exists between the actual traits of women business owners and the perception of those traits by others. This gap is even more significant when the impact of the traits on occupational choices is considered. The use of psychological traits as a predisposition to initiate a business as an occupational choice has been well established. In this study, the psychological traits of growth oriented female and male entrepreneurs were measured and tested for significant differences. One hundred five female owners of businesses that rate in the top 10% with respect to sales and number of employees were compared with those of similar male business owners. No significant differences were found on five of the nine traits that were measured. The females did score significantly lower on traits related to energy level and risk taking. They also scored significantly higher on the traits related to autonomy and change. These scores indicate that female entrepreneurs are less willing than male entrepreneurs to become involved in situations with uncertain outcomes (risk taking) and have less of the endurance or energy level needed to maintain a growth-oriented business. The significantly higher scores by the female entrepreneurs on the traits associated with autonomy and change directly refute the perceptions of females found to exist in earlier studies. In addition, the lack of a significant difference on the traits related to social adroitness and to succorance between the two groups belies the “emotionality” label often attributed to females. This study shows that the psychological propensities of female and male entrepreneurs are more similar than they are different. While some differences did exist, they would not be expected to affect the persons ability to manage a growing company. Hence, as stated earlier, gender-related psychological traits related to managerial differences do exist. However, they do not provide a basis for sexual stereotyping.

Strategic entrepreneurship : creating a new mindset

List of Figures. List of Tables. List of Contributors. . Strategic Entrepreneurship: Integrating Entrepreneurial and Strategic Management Perspectives: Michael A. Hitt (Arizona State University, USA), R. Duane Ireland (University of Richmond, USA), S. Michael Camp (Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurship, USA), Donald L. Sexton (Nova Southeastern University & Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, USA). Part I: Entrepreneurship and Strategic Management:. 2. The Entrepreneurship: Strategic Management Interface: G. Dale Meyer (University of Colorado at Boulder, USA), Heidi M. Neck (University of Colorado at Boulder, USA), Michael D. Meeks (University of Colorado at Boulder, USA). 3. Discovery and Coordination in Strategic Management and Entrepreneurship: Steven Michael (University of Illinois, USA), David Storey (Open University, UK), Howard Thomas (University of Illinois, USA). 4. A Framework for Entrepreneurial Strategy: Scott Johnson (University of Minnesota, USA), Andrew H. Van de Ven (University of Minnesota, USA). Part II: Entrepreneurial Resources:. 5. Resource--Based Theory and the Entrepreneurial Firm: Sharon A. Alvarez (Ohio State University, USA). 6. Overcoming Resource Disadvantages in Entrepreneurial Firms: When Less is More: Elaine Mosakowski (Purdue University, USA). Part III: Innovation:. 7. Bisociation, Discovery, and the Role of Entrepreneurial Action: Ken G. Smith (University of Maryland, USA), Dante Di Gregorio (University of Maryland, USA), Robert O. Anderson. 8. Market Uncertainty and Learning Distance in Corporate Entrepreneurship Entry Mode Choice: Robert E. Hoskisson (University of Oklahoma, USA), Lowell W. Busenitz (Ohio State University, USA). 9. Implementing Strategies for Corporate Entrepreneurship: A Knowledge--Based Perspective: Robert K. Kazanjian (Emory University, USA), Robert Drazin (Emory University, USA), Mary Ann Glynn (Emory University, USA). Part IV: Alliances and Networks:. 10. Networks, Alliances and Entrepreneurship: Arnold C. Cooper (Purdue University, USA). 11. Small Entrepreneurial Firms and Large Companies in Inter--firm R&D Networks: The International Biotechnology Industry: John Hagedoorn (University of Maastricht, The Netherlands), Nadine Roijakkers (University of Maastricht, The Netherlands). Part V: International Entrepreneurship:. 12. International Entrepreneurship: The Current Status of the Field and Future Research Agenda: Shaker A. Zahra (Georgia State University, USA), Gerard George (University of Wisconsin--Madison, USA). 13. What Sort of Top Management Team is Needed at the Helm of Internationally Diversified Firms? Harry Barkema (Tilburg University, The Netherlands), Oleg Chvyrkov (Tilburg University, The Netherlands). Part VI: Strategic Leadership and Growth:. 14. The Entrepreneurial Imperatives of Strategic Leadership: Jeffrey G. Covin (Indiana University, USA), Dennis P. Slevin (University of Pittsburgh, USA). 15. Entrepreneurship as Growth Growth as Entrepreneurship: Per Davidsson (Jonkoping International Business School, Sweden), Frederic Delmar (Entrepreneurship and Small Business Research Institute, Sweden), Johan Wiklund (Jonkoping International Business School, Sweden). Author Index. Subject Index.

The concept of entrepreneurial intensity: Implications for company performance

Abstract Entrepreneurial orientation is explored as an organization-level variable. The concept of entrepreneurial intensity (EI) is introduced to capture both the degree and amount of entreneurship evidenced within a given organization. It is hypothesized that levels of EI are significantly associated with measures of company performance. Results are reported of a survey directed at a cross-section of industrial firms. The findings indicate significant relationships among EI and five of six performance measures. The relationships are strongest when more weight is placed on the degree versus the amount of entrepreneurship demonstrated by a firm.

Handbook of Entrepreneurship

Despite good books such as this one, these are all questions that cannot be answered given the current state of the analytic art. Yet they are likely to be of increasing importance as we design more high-performance systems of a hazardous or failure-sensitive character. The recent sabotage of high-volume commercial sites on the Internet highlights the growing challenge-to both organizational management and organizational analysis.

ENTREPRENEURIAL LEARNING: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This paper investigates and offers tentative explanations of the processes which enable practicing entrepreneurs to learn, as they manage their growing businesses. Specifically, it provides a conceptual framework for acquiring an understanding of the learning processes which entrepreneurs use to grow their businesses. The research suggests that entrepreneurs learn processively, and it also identifies their motives for learning. This paper focuses on the learning activities entrepreneurs choose and the cognitive processes which characterize the acquisition, retention, and use of entrepreneurial knowledge. Principles from several studies within the disciplines of the cognitive sciences are used to help explain entrepreneurial learning processes. Problem-solving categories for learning are delineated; effective entrepreneurial learning is defined; and, ways for facilitating the entrepreneurs learning processes are suggested.

A comparison of the personality type dimensions of the 1987 Inc. 500 company founders/CEOs with those of slower-growth firms

Abstract A popular misconception holds that most new businesses experience similar growth stages of start-up, rapid growth, maturity, and decline. Yet, business statistics show that only a small number of firms grow into large organizations. A few experience some growth, but the majority have such small growth that they provide only a marginal income to the founder. While market conditions impact on the growth of the firm, they do not explain growth differences when they occur under similar market conditions. In this paper, the authors have compared psychological type preferences of founders/CEOs of fast-growth firms with those of slow-growth firms under the assumption that differences in psychological preferences, as they relate to gathering, assimilating, and processing information, would have an impact on the strategic or growth orientation of the firm. The results are based on the administration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to the founders/cofounders of 143 firms included in the 1987 Inc. 500 list of the fastest-growing private companies in the United States and the comparison of these results with those of an earlier study of 150 founders/CEOs of successful, yet slower growing firms. The primary personality traits under consideration were an individuals preferred method of gathering information from the environment, making decisions, and drawing conclusions from the information. The results indicate that founders of rapid-growth firms have psychological preferences that are significantly different from those of their slower-growth counterparts. Growth oriented founders prefer an intuitive approach or consideration of future possibilities when gathering information, and a thinking or planned and organized approach to drawing conclusions. These preferences represent those facets most frequently used in strategic or growth planning. Investors in new firms that place importance on the capabilities and orientations of the management team as an evaluation criteria are currently limited to consideration of past experiences. An awareness of the management teams experiences can provide an indication of management ability, but unless their experience involves management of growth, the information related to growth propensities or orientations is limited. A measure of a persons preferences in gathering, assimilating, and processing information can indicate their desires for strategic and/or growth planning. Hence, investors may have another tool that can be used in the investment decision making process. In addition, government policy makers may have the opportunity for increased effectiveness in assistance programs by recognizing that the needs and preferences of founders of rapid-growth companies are significantly different from those of their slower-growing counterparts, and that these differences should be considered in the development of assistance programs.

Advancing Small Business Research: Utilizing Research from Other Areas

More has been learned about the area of small business and entrepreneurship in the last five years than in the preceding twenty-five years combined. Yet much remains to be done. Research is needed to analyze and explain interfaces and causal relationships which can lead to convergent theories or a comprehensive theoretical development. If small business researchers are to respond to the challenge, consideration must be given to correcting existing deficiencies and incorporating research findings, constructs, and paradigms from other more mature functional areas to further the body of knowledge and to link the theoretical developments with practice.

What Makes Entrepreneurs Learn and How Do They Do It

What motivates entrepreneurs to learn and grow in their business is a question the answer to which has been attempted in this article. Similarly, answers to some questions like the existence of specific processes which help in generating motives for learning, the mechanisms adopted by entrepreneurs to acquire knowledge for growing their businesses, and so on, have been attempted. We all know that solving novel problems is one way which helps entrepreneurs acquire requisite knowledge. These problems are seen to proliferate more in rapidly changing environments and as businesses grow. This article is based on an empirical research which makes an attempt to uncover the processes that generate the necessary motivation to learn. It categorises learning motives and also identifies the basic external and internal learning activities which are practised by entrepreneurs. The benefits that can accrue to those who become familiar with and utilise these findings are also discussed at length. The article finally suggests an agenda for future research on entrepreneurial learning.

Technology transfer and value creation: Extending the theory beyond information exchange

Most interfirm models of technology transfer involve the exchange of information. As technology gains increasing importance in competitive strategy, however, the information-exchange perspective becomes increasingly limited. This paper conceptually extends the interfirm technology-transfer process to include aspects of commercialization and value creation. Like other areas of organizational science, much of the problem associated with technology transfer involves implementation. The model developed in this study, in its simplest form, links the technology-transfer process to the well-developed process models of new-product and new-venture development.

Validation of an Innovative Teaching Approach for Entrepreneurship Courses

Don Sexton and Nancy Bowman-Uptons excellent article represents the first of a series of different authors on the general topic of teaching entrepreneurship. The series on teaching entrepreneurship is focused on what to teach students and particularly, how to teach it. Future coverage can include other areas besides undergraduate and graduate teaching, assuming papers of high quality are forthcoming. Our intent is to expedite the review process, so if you have a paper on teaching entrepreneurship, I can promise you a timely response.