Donald R. Goodenough

Psychological differentiation as a factor in conflict resolution.

Previous studies have shown that persons matched in level of differentiation are likely to develop greater interpersonal attraction in the course of an interaction than are mismatched persons. These studies were all conducted in situations where the interacting persons were working toward a common goal. To test the hypothesis that situational variables may moderate match-mismatch effects, the present study investigated these affects when the interacting persons were in conflict. Based on their performance in tests of field dependence-independence, subjects were selected as relatively high or relatively low in level of differentiation. Three kinds of dyads were composed-high-differentiation/high-differentiation, low-differentiation/low-differentiation, and high-differentiation/low-differentiation--and their task was to reconcile conflict on an issue about which they were known to disagree. It was predicted that because of the more accommodating quality of low-differentiation persons, dyads including one or two such subjects would more often reconcile their disagreements and show greater interpersonal attraction than would dyads consisting of two high-differentiation subjects. Both predictions were confirmed, supporting the hypothesis that the outcome of match or mismatch is mediated by situational variables.

Eye torsion in response to a tilted visual stimulus

When the head is tilted laterally the eyes rotate in the opposite direction and come to rest at a less tilted position than the head with respect to the gravitational vertical (e.g. Howard and Templeton, 1966). This tonic countertorsion response occurs in the absence of visual stimulation and appears to be controlled primarily by the vestibular otolith (e.g. Graybiel, 1974). A visual stimulus is also capable of inducing eye torsion in a stationary observer, if it rotates around the observer’s line of sight (e.g. Howard and Templeton, 1964). It has generally been accepted, however, that eye torsion does not occur in response to a stationary visual field which is tilted with respect to the gravitational vertical (Howard and Templeton, 1964). Recent evidence suggests that this conclusion may not be correct under all conditions. Evidence of eye torsion in the direction of a tilted visual stimulus was reported in early studies using subjective afterimage techniques (Greenberg, 1960; Mesker, 1953). The subjective method of recording ‘torsion was criticized by Woward and Templeton (19643, however, who could find no objective, photographic evidence of visually induced torsion. The work of Howard and Templeton was carefully done and is often cited to support the conclusion that a stationary visual stimulus induces no eye torsion. Some positive photographic evidence has been reported in several recent studies, however. In an unpublished dissertation study, Hughes (1973) found torsional responses averaging about 0.5”. and Crone (1975) found up to I” of torsion in the direction of a tilted visual field. The question of whether eye torsion may occur in response to a stationary visual stimulus is of interest for several reasons. Recent evidence indicates that a variety of vestibular responses can be induced by visual stimuli (e.g. Dichgans and Brandt, 1974; Ebenholtz and Benzschawel, 1977; Henn er al., 1974). The most pertinent of these studies for the question at issue have shown that a stationary tilted visual display is capable of inducing an illusion of self-tilt in the opposite direction. It seems reasonable to suppose that this self-tilt illusion is due to a visual driving of the vestibular otolith system. If so, then torsional responses might also be expected, and would provide an objective method for the study of visual effects on the otolith system. Visually induced torsion would also be of some interest in the attempt to account for a variety of illusions. For example, the well-known rod-and-frame illusion could be partly due to torsional responses that are uncompensated perceptually. In this illusion an objectively vertical line (rod) looks tilted away from a surrounding tilted frame {e.g. Witkin et al., 1962/1974). Hughes (1973) found that individual differences in degree of torsion were highly related to differences in susceptibility to this illusion. Hughes concluded that part of the frame effect on apparent rod orientation can be attributed to torsional effects. In view of the discrepancies in results reported so far, and the interesting implications involved, it seemed useful to re-examine the question of visually induced torsion. In the present study, eye position was recorded photographically while observers viewed the standard rod-and-frame display (e.g. Witkin er al., 1962/1974).

Instructions, illusory self-tilt and the rod-and-frame test

If an illusion of self-tilt is involved in rod-and-frame test performance, then instructions to adjust the rod to the body midline (egocentric instructions) should result in less rod adjustment error than the standard instructions for the rod-and-frame test to adjust the rod to the gravitational vertical. Two experiments were designed to examine this possibility. The results of the first experiment indicate that the tilted rod-and-frame display induces an illusion of self-tilt in the opposite direction. Significant differences between instructional conditions were found in the second experiment as expected. Other rod-and-frame studies are discussed in view of these findings.

The nature of individual differences in field dependence

Abstract Factor analyses were conducted on measures of field dependence and cognitive abilities to test some hypotheses about the nature of individual differences in orientation perception. Some hypotheses were also tested about relationships between the rod-and-frame and embedded-figures tests that are commonly used to measure the field-dependence dimension. The data are consistent with a model of the rod-and-frame test in which errors are attributed to two effects of the frame. The first is mediated by a rotation of perceptual axes, normally involved in the maintenance of orientation constancy, and the second involves a distortion in perceived angles between the rod and the frame sides. Individual differences in orientation perception are related to the embedded-figures test as expected, but they are just as highly related to many other tests of spatial-visual abilities. These relationships appear due to the constancy component of the RFT.

A review of individual differences in field dependence as a factor in auto safety

Several studies suggest that field-dependent drivers may have more accidents than field-independent drivers. However, much more research is needed to specify the nature of the driver behaviors involved. In this report severalhypotheses are considered concerning how field-dependent and field-independent drivers may differ in response to developing emergencies and with respect to defensive behaviors. Methodological problems involved in testing these hypotheses are also discussed.

Orientation contrast effects in the rod-and-frame test

Previous research indicates that a tilted visual display is capable of inducing eye torsion and an illusion of self-tilt in objectively upright observers. These effects may contribute to performance errors on the rod-and-frame test by rotating the perceived axes of visual space toward the tilted frame. The kinesthetic-matching method was used in the present study to see whether an effect of the visual orientation contrast between red and frame sides might also contribute to rod-and-frame test performance. Observers aligned invisible hand-held rods with the visual rod at various tilts under a control condition when the frame was absent, and under experimental conditions with the frame upright or set at 45°. The frame induced matching errors in the direction away from the frame sides which were most nearly parallel to the rod. Since no rotation of apparent visual axes should occur under these conditions, the data suggest that an orientation contrast effect is involved in the rod-and-frame test.

Subjective Estimates of Body Tilt and the Rod-and-Frame Test

The existence of an illusion of self-tilt in the rod-and-frame test was demonstrated using a magnitude-estimation procedure. Subjects, seated in a tiltable chair, estimated their body tilt after being placed in one of 13 body tilt positions and while viewing a rod-and-frame display. A shift of the apparent body position occurred in the opposite direction of frame tilt. The results are consistent with earlier findings using the method of body and head adjustment.

The rod-and-frame illusion in erect and supine observers

Previous studies have found that the effect of a tilted frame on egocentric rod adjustments is greater when an overhead display in a horizontal plane is viewed from a supine body position than when a vertical display is viewed from an erect body position. The present studies were designed to see whether this phenomenon could be attributed to an intravisual orientation contrast effect or to the effects of visually induced eye torsion. No significant erect-supine differences were found on measures of either effect. Errors in the direction of frame tilt were significantly greater in the supine position when observers were asked to align a visible rod or an unseen hand-held disk with the head, but no effect of body position was found in matching the orientation of the disk with the rod. The data suggest that erect-supine differences in frame effects are not attributable simply to intravisual factors. The results are discussed in terms used by Harris (1974) to describe “straight-ahead shifts” in judging spatial directions with respect to the median plane.

Cognitive styles in the development of medical careers

Abstract Recent research has shown that academic choice and achievement may be partly a function of the students standing on the field-dependence-independence cognitive-style dimension. The results of two longitudinal studies suggest that information about field dependence-independence may be of value for student guidance in the medical setting. The first, a study of college undergraduates who early expressed an interest in medicine, showed that these cognitive styles play a discernible role in determining who will eventually enter medical school. The second, a study of medical students, showed that field-dependent and field-independent students subsequently tend to choose different medical specialties. These results are consistent with cognitive-style theory, which proposes that field-independent people will choose vocations that require cognitive restructuring skills, whereas field-dependent people will choose vocations that require greater social-interpersonal involvement.

A visually induced illusion of body tilt in a horizontal plane

Unexpected spontaneous reports of an illusion of body orientation have been observed in previous studies on the effects of a tilted overhead frame on supine observers. The present studies were designed in an attempt to describe and measure this illusion. The findings suggest that when objectively aligned with invisible side walls of the room, some subjects may experience an illusion that they are tilted in a horizontal plane with respect to the room walls in the direction opposite to frame tilt from the longitudinal body axes. The results are discussed in terms of a model of visual-vestibular interactions.