Donald W. Goodwin

Heredity and Alcoholism

Alcoholism is a familial disorder. Studies have repeatedly shown a high prevAlcnce of alcoholism among the relatives of alcoholics. “Familial” however, is not synonymous with “hereditary.” Speaking French may also be familial but presumably not because of genes.

Genetic determinants of alcohol addiction.

Animal and human studies indicate strain, species, and racial differences in biological responses to alcohol. Presumably, these are at least partly determined by genetic factors. However, until recently there has been little evidence suggesting that the condition called alcoholism is influenced by genetic factors. Although alcoholism is strongly familial (about one quarter of male relatives of alcoholics are themselves alcoholic), the condition is also associated with vocational and ethnic differences and at present there is no consistent evidence linking alcoholism to specific biochemical abnormalities. In recent years, however, an increasing body of evidence has suggested that genetic factors may play a role. These studies generally have been of two types: (1) twin and adoption studies, and (2) genetic marker studies. Two twin studies have been conducted. One indicated that monozygotic twins are more concordant for alcohol problems than are dizygotic twins. The other produced equivocal findings. Genetic marker studies have had inconsistent results. Of two adoption studies conducted, one found evidence for a hereditary factor and the other did not. It is hypothesized that severe forms of alcoholism may be heritable while milder forms have nongenetic origins. The virtues and limitations of the various studies are discussed.

Why people do not drink: A study of teetotalers

Abstract A structured interview was administered to 133 white members of a mid-western Protestant church noted for its views against drinking. All subjects were over age 40 and had children over age 25. Three-fourths of them were lifelong teetotalers. Compared to drinkers in the group, teetotalers were significantly more likely to be highly religious and puritanical, come from families of similar views, and have teetotaler parents and spouses. The teetotalers having a family history of alcoholism differed from teetotalers lacking such a history in the following regards: they less often came from rural backgrounds and had fewer siblings; their parents generally were less puritanical and religious and included fewer teetotalers and more heavy drinkers. These differences suggest that teetotalism, even in a religious group proscribing alcohol, derives from diverse motivations where the presence or absence of alcoholism in the family may be a contributing factor.

SHORT‐TERM MEMORY AND THE ALCOHOLIC BLACKOUT*

Sudden “insults” to cerebral functioning, such as occur in concussion and grand ma1 seizures, often produce memory loss that involves both retrograde and anterograde elements. The subject has varying degrees of amnesia for past experiences that have presumedly been “consolidated” and additionally has difficulty, for a time, storing new information. As a rule, the retrograde amnesia, if extensive in nature, over time undergoes “shrinkage”-that is, the period of amnesia becomes gradually reduced. However, the period during which the anterograde amnesia persists apparently involves an irreversible deficit in memory storage.’ Although the anterograde amnesia that occurs following concussions and seizures is usually transienf, it resembles the type of chronic, specific, shortterm memory impairment observed in patients with bilateral hippocampal lesions and in Korsakoffs syndrome.2 Another common form of amnesia occurs during alcohol intoxication. This amnesia, commonly called “blackout,” is rarely associated with other drug intoxications (scopalamine intoxication being one exception). Until recently, alcoholic blackouts had not been observed under experimental conditions, and it was unknown whether, like concussions and seizures, the amnesia comprised both retrograde and anterograde elements or was predominently one or the other in type. Nor was it known whether blackouts were a unitary phenomenon, based on common pathophysiological processes, or had various causes. Phenomenologically, blackouts range in severity from classic fuguelike states, in which the intoxicated individual performs highly complicated acts with little or no recollection of having performed them to spotty forms of memory loss in which discrete events are forgotten and, at least on some occasions, are recoverable spontaneously or by prompting. This has led to speculation that the former “en bloc” blackouts represent a failure of retention or consolidation whereas the more recoverable types of memory loss may reflect a phenomenon referred to as “statedependent” or “dissociated” learning.3 It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the pros and cons for this argument. Instead, two questions relevant to alcoholic blackouts will be considered. First, evidence will be reviewed bearing on whether blackouts occurring in alcoholics are predominently retrograde or anterograde in nature. Second, data will be presented on whether alcoholic blackouts are graded or “threshold” phenomena.

State-dependent effects of alcohol on autonomic orienting responses

The effects of alcohol and change of state on habituation of the orienting responses of skin potential, finger pulse volume, and heart rate in adult males were studied. State-dependent effects of alcohol on these responses were demonstrated, together with a response-depressing effect of alcohol.

Stimulant Effects of Marihuana on Three Neuropsychological Systems

The present report deals with three separate studies examining the effects of marihuana on three neuropsychological systems: memory, pain perception, and vision. The results suggest there may be a commonality in the way marihuana affects these systems.