Doreen Matthies

2.2 Å resolution cryo-EM structure of β-galactosidase in complex with a cell-permeant inhibitor

Pushing the limits of electron microscopy Recent advances in cryo–electron microscopy (cryo-EM) allow structures of large macromolecules to be determined at near-atomic resolution. So far, though, resolutions approaching 2 Å, where features key to drug design are revealed, remain the province of x-ray crystallography. Bartesaghi et al. achieved a resolution of 2.2 Å for a 465-kD ligand-bound protein complex using cryo-EM. The density map is detailed enough to show close to 800 water molecules, magnesium and sodium ions, and precise side-chain conformations. These results bring routine use of cryo-EM in rational drug design a step closer. Science, this issue p. 1147 Advances in electron microscopy allow protein structure determination at resolutions useful in drug discovery. Cryo–electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly emerging as a powerful tool for protein structure determination at high resolution. Here we report the structure of a complex between Escherichia coli β-galactosidase and the cell-permeant inhibitor phenylethyl β-d-thiogalactopyranoside (PETG), determined by cryo-EM at an average resolution of ~2.2 angstroms (Å). Besides the PETG ligand, we identified densities in the map for ~800 water molecules and for magnesium and sodium ions. Although it is likely that continued advances in detector technology may further enhance resolution, our findings demonstrate that preparation of specimens of adequate quality and intrinsic protein flexibility, rather than imaging or image-processing technologies, now represent the major bottlenecks to routinely achieving resolutions close to 2 Å using single-particle cryo-EM.

Structure of β-galactosidase at 3.2-Å resolution obtained by cryo-electron microscopy

Significance Atomic resolution models for proteins and protein complexes are usually obtained using X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy, and in selected instances, by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) of ordered protein assemblies. The vast majority of high-resolution structures obtained using cryo-EM have been typically restricted to large, well-ordered entities such as helical or icosahedral assemblies or two-dimensional crystals. We show here that emerging methods in single-particle cryo-EM now allow structure determination at near-atomic resolution, even for much smaller protein complexes with low symmetry, by determining the structure of the 465-kDa enzyme β-galactosidase. In addition, by quantitative comparison of density maps obtained at different electron dosages, we demonstrate preferential sensitivity of residues such as Asp and Glu to damage upon irradiation with electrons. We report the solution structure of Escherichia coli β-galactosidase (∼465 kDa), solved at ∼3.2-Å resolution by using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). Densities for most side chains, including those of residues in the active site, and a catalytic Mg2+ ion can be discerned in the map obtained by cryo-EM. The atomic model derived from our cryo-EM analysis closely matches the 1.7-Å crystal structure with a global rmsd of ∼0.66 Å. There are significant local differences throughout the protein, with clear evidence for conformational changes resulting from contact zones in the crystal lattice. Inspection of the map reveals that although densities for residues with positively charged and neutral side chains are well resolved, systematically weaker densities are observed for residues with negatively charged side chains. We show that the weaker densities for negatively charged residues arise from their greater sensitivity to radiation damage from electron irradiation as determined by comparison of density maps obtained by using electron doses ranging from 10 to 30 e−/Å2. In summary, we establish that it is feasible to use cryo-EM to determine near-atomic resolution structures of protein complexes (<500 kDa) with low symmetry, and that the residue-specific radiation damage that occurs with increasing electron dose can be monitored by using dose fractionation tools available with direct electron detector technology.

Cryo-EM Structures of the Magnesium Channel CorA Reveal Symmetry Break upon Gating.

CorA, the major Mg(2+) uptake system in prokaryotes, is gated by intracellular Mg(2+) (KD ∼ 1-2 mM). X-ray crystallographic studies of CorA show similar conformations under Mg(2+)-bound and Mg(2+)-free conditions, but EPR spectroscopic studies reveal large Mg(2+)-driven quaternary conformational changes. Here, we determined cryo-EM structures of CorA in the Mg(2+)-bound closed conformation and in two open Mg(2+)-free states at resolutions of 3.8, 7.1, and 7.1 Å, respectively. In the absence of bound Mg(2+), four of the five subunits are displaced to variable extents (∼ 10-25 Å) by hinge-like motions as large as ∼ 35° at the stalk helix. The transition between a single 5-fold symmetric closed state and an ensemble of low Mg(2+), open, asymmetric conformational states is, thus, the key structural signature of CorA gating. This mechanism is likely to apply to other structurally similar divalent ion channels.

Using Cryo-EM to Map Small Ligands on Dynamic Metabolic Enzymes: Studies with Glutamate Dehydrogenase

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) methods are now being used to determine structures at near-atomic resolution and have great promise in molecular pharmacology, especially in the context of mapping the binding of small-molecule ligands to protein complexes that display conformational flexibility. We illustrate this here using glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), a 336-kDa metabolic enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative deamination of glutamate. Dysregulation of GDH leads to a variety of metabolic and neurologic disorders. Here, we report near-atomic resolution cryo-EM structures, at resolutions ranging from 3.2 Å to 3.6 Å for GDH complexes, including complexes for which crystal structures are not available. We show that the binding of the coenzyme NADH alone or in concert with GTP results in a binary mixture in which the enzyme is in either an “open” or “closed” state. Whereas the structure of NADH in the active site is similar between the open and closed states, it is unexpectedly different at the regulatory site. Our studies thus demonstrate that even in instances when there is considerable structural information available from X-ray crystallography, cryo-EM methods can provide useful complementary insights into regulatory mechanisms for dynamic protein complexes.

Structural basis for early-onset neurological disorders caused by mutations in human selenocysteine synthase

Selenocysteine synthase (SepSecS) catalyzes the terminal reaction of selenocysteine, and is vital for human selenoproteome integrity. Autosomal recessive inheritance of mutations in SepSecS–Ala239Thr, Thr325Ser, Tyr334Cys and Tyr429*–induced severe, early-onset, neurological disorders in distinct human populations. Although harboring different mutant alleles, patients presented remarkably similar phenotypes typified by cerebellar and cerebral atrophy, seizures, irritability, ataxia, and extreme spasticity. However, it has remained unclear how these genetic alterations affected the structure of SepSecS and subsequently elicited the development of a neurological pathology. Herein, our biophysical and structural characterization demonstrates that, with the exception of Tyr429*, pathogenic mutations decrease protein stability and trigger protein misfolding. We propose that the reduced stability and increased propensity towards misfolding are the main causes for the loss of SepSecS activity in afflicted patients, and that these factors contribute to disease progression. We also suggest that misfolding of enzymes regulating protein synthesis should be considered in the diagnosis and study of childhood neurological disorders.

Using cryo-EM to Untangle the Conformational Landscape of a Small Allosterically-Regulated Complex

Use of direct-electron-detectors is driving an unprecedented increase in the resolution of protein complex structures solved by cryo-EM. Computer driven image acquisition combined with streamlined image processing pipelines offer the opportunity to determine structures relatively automated way. Here, we combine these developments to characterize the binding of small ligands on glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), a clinically significant 336 kDa homohexameric enzyme that is a relevant pharmaceutical target for cancer, Parkinsons, and diabetes. Images from single specimens collected in a single session provided enough information to localize nucleotides in a complex at ∼3.2 A resolution. We first confirmed the validity of the approach by determining the structure of GDH complexes for which comparable crystallographic coordinates are available. We then found that binding of the coenzyme NADH alone or in concert with GTP results in a binary mixture that can be resolved into two ∼3.3 A structures for which the enzyme is in either an “open” or “closed” state. The work-flow used in this work provides a streamlined path to rapidly solve the structure of macromolecular complexes, to image the binding target of drug molecules and to resolve conformers at near atomic resolution.