Doris Aaronson

A Longitudinal Study of Chinese Children and Adolescents Learning English in the United States.

Ten native Chinese-speaking children and adolescents who immigrated to the United States between ages 5 and 16 were studied for 3 years. The changes in their language preferences, language environments, and proficiency in English, their second language (L2), as well as Chinese, their first language (L1), were measured quantitatively and qualitatively. Participants with arrival ages of 9 or younger switched their language preference from L1 to L2 within the first year, were exposed to a significantly richer L2 than L1 environment, and became more proficient in L2 than in L1. The older participants maintained their preference for L1 across the 3 years, were exposed to a significantly richer L1 than L2 environment, and maintained L1 as the more proficient language. Interactions among L1 proficiency, peer interactions, social abilities, and cultural preferences jointly influenced the dominant language switch or maintenance processes.

Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive variables and language group differences

This study examined the variables related to US immigrants’ long-term attainment in English, their second language (L2), and their native language (L1). For 44 Mandarin–English bilinguals, with increasing age of arrival (AOA) in the United States, their accuracy in L2 grammaticality judgment tasks decreased and accuracy in an L1 grammaticality judgment task increased. Moreover, both AOA in the United States and mothers’ English proficiency uniquely predicted a significant proportion of the variance for bilinguals’ L2 proficiency. Finally, as a group, 72 speakers of three Asian languages showed lower levels of L2 proficiency and stronger AOA effects on the task performance than 32 speakers of six European languages. These differences in language proficiency were associated with differences in language use, language learning motivation, and cultural identification between the two groups. These findings suggest that L2 acquisition in the immigration setting is a complicated process involving the dynamic interactions of multiple variables. Most immigrants face the task of learning the language of their host country as a second language (L2). Understanding the factors influencing the speed at which they acquire their L2 and the level of L2 proficiency they obtain carries both practical and theoretical significance. One major factor that has been the focus of research is the impact of age of arrival (AOA) in the L2-speaking country on L2 acquisition. Although adults typically have been found to be faster than younger children in the initial stage of learning (e.g., Olson & Sam

Performance theories for sentence coding: Some quantitative models

When memory is required, sentence reading time patterns are U-shaped over the phrases, with prolonged pauses at phrase boundaries. Qualitative hypotheses suggest why subjects engage in higher-level coding at phrase boundaries. Quantitative models account for how long subjects pause there. A two-process additive model accounts well for the data and better than nine other models. Beyond a base reading and motor time, the model includes an organization process for words in the current phrase and a contextual integration process for all preceding words in the sentence. This model is similar to serial processing models previously proposed for coding word lists, and an analysis of past research reveals coding similarities for sentences and word lists when memory demands are high.

Perception and immediate recall of normal and “compressed” auditory sequences

For a fixed presentation rate, the ratio of speech-to-pause time was varied in three experiments. Ss recalled seven-digit sequences or monitored for item or order information in addition to recall. Removing 33% of the speech and substituting pause time improved recall accuracy and monitoring reaction times. The data suggest that loss of order information in recall may result from cumulative perceptual delays when adequate pause time is unavailable.

Stimulus factors and listening strategies in auditory memory: A theoretical analysis ☆

Abstract A theory for the temporal course of perceptual coding during auditory short-term memory tasks is described. A low-level “sensor” and a high-level “identifier” process item and order information from stimulus word-strings. Both word durations and interword pauses are needed for this processing, and if adequate processing time is unavailable, perceptual delays will lead to degraded recall performance. Stimulus parameters and subject strategies interact to determine the quality and the order in which stimulus items are coded. These hypotheses are supported both by experiments using grammatical sentences and those using lists of unrelated words.

Sentence processing in Chinese-American bilinguals ☆

Abstract This study compares metalinguistic ratings for English words done by Chinese-English bilinguals and monolingual English speakers. Bilinguals generally rated English words as contributing more to both the meaning and structure of their sentences than did monolinguals. Further, on a relative basis, bilinguals rated English content words as contributing more to structure and function words as contributing more to meaning than monolinguals. Language-specific differences are shown to be consistent with these differences in the cognitive processing of linguistic information. These processing differences suggest ways in which the bilinguals languages interact during sentence processing.

Reading Strategies for Children and Adults: Some Empirical Evidence.

Task-linked reading strategies were studied in adults and fifth graders who read sentences for retention (verbatim recall) or for comprehension (true—false responses to statements). Word-by-word reading times (RTs) were analyzed for nine linguistic indices that reflect the coding of individual words, of structure, and of meaning. For the recall task, the adult RTs primarily reflected the syntactic structure, as illustrated by prolonged phrase boundary RTs, and significant RT differences between lexical and copular verbs, and between sentences with and without embedded relative clauses. For the comprehension task, the adult RTs primarily reflected the semantic content, as illustrated by semantic integration and facilitation scores. However, for children, both the structure and meaning indices were higher for recall than comprehension subjects. Further, children from both task groups appear to use reading strategies that involve mixtures of adult components.

SIMPLE guidelines for developing a computer-based laboratory

Information relevant to setting up a computer-based psychology research laboratory is reviewed. The pros and cons of computer usage and of various hardware configurations are considered. Also, several approaches to program development are discussed. Guidelines for hardware and software development are put forth, and an example of a laboratory based on these principles is described.

Computer methods and ecological validity in reading research

Computer-based procedures for obtaining word-by-word reading times are evaluated in terms of criteria for basic research and for ecologically valid research. Ecological validity can sometimes compromise experimental designs that should control extraneous variables or separate confounded factors. Two reading paradigms that were developed for basic research on linguistic coding mechanisms are also shown to meet many of the criteria for ecological validity.

Stimulus factors and listening strategies in auditory memory: An experimental demonstration

Abstract Three experiments are reported in which digits spoken at different rates were recalled and monitored. In Experiment I, digits to be recalled were embedded in varying levels of noise. In Experiment II noise was presented only during the inter-digit intervals, either to the same or to the opposite ear as the digits. In Experiment III Ss monitored these sequences for a specified digit and reported its successor. Stimulus rate and signal-to-noise ratio affected perceptual processing time, as evidenced by the frequency and relative proportion of item and order errors. These stimulus factors induce listening strategies that influence the shape of the serial position curve and that persist after stimulus conditions are changed. The data are consistent with a two-stage processing model for the temporal course of speech perception and the nature of listening strategies.