Douglas A. Bayliss

Regulation of Tyrosine Hydroxylase Gene Expression in the Rat Carotid Body by Hypoxia

Abstract: The activity (Vmax) of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH; EC 1.14.16.2), the rate limiting enzyme in the synthesis of catecholamines, is increased in carotid body, superior cervical ganglion, and the adrenal medulla during hypoxia (i.e., reduced Pao2). The present study was undertaken to determine if the increase in TH activity in these tissues during hypoxia is regulated at the level of TH mRNA. Adult rats were exposed to hypoxia (10% O2) or room air for periods lasting from 1 to 48 h. The carotid bodies, superior cervical ganglia, and adrenals were removed and processed for in situ hybridization using 35S‐labeled oligonucleotide probes. The concentration of TH mRNA was increased by hypoxia at all time points in carotid body type I cells, but not in cells of either superior cervical ganglion or adrenal medulla. The increase in TH mRNA in carotid body during hypoxia did not require innervation of the carotid body or intact adrenal glands. In addition, hypercapnia, another physiological stimulus of carotid body activity, failed to induce an increase in TH mRNA in type I cells. Our findings suggest that hypoxia stimulates TH gene expression in the carotid body by a mechanism that is intrinsic to type I cells.

Depolarization and stimulation of neurons in nucleus tractus solitarii by carbon dioxide does not require chemical synaptic input.

The effects of elevated CO2 (i.e. hypercapnia) on neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii were studied using extracellular (n = 82) and intracellular (n = 33) recording techniques in transverse brain slices prepared from rat. Synaptic connections from putative chemosensitive neurons in the ventrolateral medulla were removed by bisecting each transverse slice and discarding the ventral half. In addition, the response to hypercapnia in 20 neurons was studied during high magnesium-low calcium synaptic blockade. Sixty-five per cent of the neurons (n = 75) tested were either insensitive or inhibited by hypercapnia. However, 35% (n = 40) were depolarized and/or increased their firing rate during hypercapnia. Nine out of 10 CO2-excited neurons retained their chemosensitivity to CO2 in the presence of high magnesium-low calcium synaptic blockade medium. Our findings demonstrate that many neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii were depolarized and/or increased their firing rate during hypercapnia. These neurons were not driven synaptically by putative chemosensitive neurons of the ventrolateral medulla since this region was removed from the slice. Furthermore, because chemosensitivity persisted in most neurons tested during synaptic blockade, we conclude that some neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii are inherently CO2-chemosensitive. Although the function of dorsal medullary chemosensitive neurons cannot be determined in vitro, their location and their inherent chemosensitivity suggest a role in cardiorespiratory central chemoreception.

Gene expression for peptides in neurons of the petrosal and nodose ganglia in rat

SummaryIn situ hybridization was used to determine whether genes for neuropeptides [substance P/neurokinin A (SP/NKA), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), somatostatin (SOM), neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY) and cholecystokinin (CCK)] are expressed in inferior ganglia of the vagus (nodose) and glossopharyngeal (petrosal) nerves. Synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotides, complementary to the cognate, mRNAs were labeled with [32P] or [35S], and hybridized to 10 μm thick sections of unperfused tissue which were then processed for film and emulsion autoradiography. We found numerous, clustered neuronal perikarya throughout the nodose and petrosal ganglia that expressed preprotachykinin A (SP/NKA) and CGRP mRNAs to varying degrees. Neurons expressing preproSOM mRNA were less abundant and more scattered throughout both ganglia. Notably, we found mRNA for NPY in cells (usually 5–10 per section) in both ganglia. To our knowledge, this is first evidence for NPY in these sensory ganglia. In contrast to previous immunohistochemical findings, we found no evidence for expression of preproCCK in either the nodose or petrosal ganglia. The present findings demonstrate that cells of the nodose and petrosal ganglia express the genes for a number of neuropeptides that are presumably involved with transmission of visceral sensory afferent information to higher order neurons of the central nervous system.

Localization of histidine decarboxylase mRNA in rat brain

The recent cloning of a cDNA encoding fetal rat liver histidine decarboxylase (HDC), the synthesizing enzyme for histamine, allows the study of the central histaminergic system at the molecular level. To this end, Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses were used to determine the regional and cellular distribution of neurons which express HDC mRNA in rat brain. Three hybridizing species which migrate as 1.6-, 2.6-, and 3.5-kb RNA were identified with Northern blots. The major (2.6 kb) and minor (3.5 kb) species, characteristic of HDC mRNA in fetal liver, were expressed at high levels in diencephalon and at just detectable levels in hippocampus, but not in other brain regions. In contrast, the 1.6-kb species was present in all brain regions examined except the olfactory bulb. Cells which contain HDC mRNA were found by in situ hybridization in the hypothalamus; HDC mRNA-containing cells were not detected in other areas, including the hippocampus. Hypothalamic neurons which express HDC mRNA were localized to all aspects of the tuberomammillary nucleus, a result consistent with previous immunohistochemical findings.

Expression of messenger RNAs for peptides and tyrosine hydroxylase in primary sensory neurons that innervate arterial baroreceptors and chemoreceptors

Retrograde fiber tracing and in situ hybridization were used to determine expression of mRNAs for preprotachykinin A (ppTA), calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP), preproenkephalin A (ENK), neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY) and somatostatin (SOM) as well as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the petrosal ganglia primary sensory neurons which innervate carotid sinus baroreceptors and carotid body chemoreceptors. Perfusion of the carotid sinus with the retrogradely transported dye (Fluoro-Gold) labeled primary sensory neurons in petrosal ganglion. Numerous somata in the petrosal ganglion labeled with dye contained mRNAs for all the above peptides, except SOM. Moreover, TH mRNA was found in a substantial number of retrogradely labeled cells in the petrosal ganglion. This study provides information concerning which of the numerous peptides identified in sensory neurons of petrosal ganglion may be involved in modulation of the arterial baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes.

Transient expression of somatostatin messenger RNA and peptide in the hypoglossal nucleus of the neonatal rat.

The postnatal developmental expression of somatostatin mRNA and peptide in the rat hypoglossal nucleus was analyzed using immunocytochemical and in situ hybridization techniques. Both the neuropeptide and its cognate mRNA were found to be transiently present within a subpopulation of hypoglossal motoneurons during the neonatal period. At the day of birth, a large population of perikarya situated in caudal, ventral regions of the hypoglossal nucleus expressed somatostatin. By postnatal day 7, the number of hypoglossal somata which expressed somatostatin had diminished considerably, and by 2 weeks postnatal, only few such cell bodies were found. By 3-4 weeks postnatal, somatostatin peptide- and mRNA-containing hypoglossal motoneurons were rarely observed, and in the adult, they were never detected, despite the use of colchicine. A double-labeling co-localization technique was used to demonstrate that somatostatin, when present perinatally, always coexisted with calcitonin gene-related peptide in hypoglossal motoneurons. The latter peptide, in contrast to somatostatin, was expressed in large numbers of somata throughout the entire hypoglossal nucleus and persisted within the motoneurons throughout development into adulthood. These results demonstrate that somatostatin is transiently expressed in motoneurons of the caudal, ventral tier of the hypoglossal nucleus in the neonatal rat. The developmental disappearance of somatostatin is most likely not due to cell death; hypoglossal somata continue to express calcitonin gene-related peptide, with which somatostatin coexisted perinatally, a high levels throughout development. Thus, it appears that the regulation of somatostatin expression in hypoglossal neurons occurs at the level of gene transcription or mRNA stability/degradation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Chronic estrogen exposure maintains elevated levels of progesterone receptor mRNA in guinea pig hypothalamus

We performed in situ hybridization on hypothalamic sections from ovariectomized guinea pig using a cocktail of three 35S-labeled oligonucleotides complementary to mammalian progesterone receptor (PR) cDNA. PR mRNA was readily detected in hypothalamic neurons from guinea pigs pretreated with 17 beta-estradiol benzoate (E2B), but not from animals which did not receive supplemental E2B. The distribution of PR mRNA-containing cells corresponded well with previous localizations of PR in guinea pig. In contrast to earlier reports of E2B regulation of PR mRNA in rat hypothalamus, however, we found that PR mRNA remained elevated during chronic exposure to E2B (up to 10 days) in guinea pig.

Excitatory and inhibitory effects on respiration of l-glutamate microinjected superficially into the ventral aspects of the medulla oblongata in cat

L-Glutamate (4-40 nmol) was microinjected at superficial depths beneath the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata in cats. Injections (100-300 microns beneath the surface) made rostromedial to the hypoglossal nerve, less than 1.5 mm lateral to the pyramidal tract, caused stimulation of phrenic nerve activity. Injections (100-500 microns beneath the surface) up to 1 mm further lateral caused a marked increase in arterial pressure and depression of phrenic nerve activity. These findings support the existence of two cell groups in the ventral medulla that are involved in regulation of respiration; when activated, one (medial group) causes facilitation and the other (lateral group) inhibition of respiration.

Messenger RNAs for Neuropeptides in Primary Sensory Neurons of the Petrosal Ganglion in Rat

Arterial baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are essential for reflex regulation of arterial pressure and blood gases. Sensory information from arterial baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and arterial chemoreceptors of the carotid body reaches the brain via primary sensory neurons whose cell bodies are located in the petrosal ganglion. The central site of termination for most petrosal ganglion cells is the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the dorsal medulla. Because of the vital role these primary sensory afferents play in autonomic regulation, it is important to identify potential neurotransmitter molecules in these cells.