Douglas A. Conner

The Effect of Pain on Infant Behaviors

Facial body, and cry behaviors, heart rate, palmer sweating, and acoustic cry measures were compared across differing levels of infant pain. Eighty-eight infants were placed in a 16-cell matrix of 4 ages (O to 3 mo., 4 to 6 mo., 7 to 9 mo., and 10 to 12 mo.) and levels of pain (WOP) (none, mild, moderate, severe) with 5 to 6 infants occupying each cell Matrix placement was determined by agreement of >75% among five pediatric clinical nurse specialists who viewed videotapes and read information about the infants history, diagnosis, medical and/or surgical status, medications, and nutritional/fluid status. Coded infant behaviors and acoustic cry parameters were compared using a 2-level (LOP, age) MANOVA. Behaviors that differed across LOP were influenced by infant development. Facial expressions were clinically useful LOP indicators only for 0- to 3-month-old infants. Facial and body behaviors and cry measures that differed across LOP in younger infants did not differ in older infants due to the development of intentionality. Cry orientation and consolability may be useful clinical indicators of pain with older infants.

The influence of length of pediatric nursing experience on key cues used to assess infant pain

This study examined (1) the influence of continuing education and length of pediatric nursing experience on infant pain assessments, (2) length of pediatric nursing experience on the cues used in making these assessments, and (3) the relationships between cues and assessed levels of pain. The convenience sample consisted of 20 nurses with less than 1 year of pediatric nursing experience, 20 nurses with more than 1 year of pediatric nursing experience but less than 5 years, and 24 nurses with more than 5 years pediatric nursing experience. All had at least a Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree. Participants assessed videotaped infants in varying degrees of pain, as determined by an expert panel. Results fit with, and provide some quantitative illustration for, the model of clinical nursing development as described by Benner and coworkers. More experienced nurse participants agreed more with the expert panel on levels of assessed pain than the other nurse participants. Similarities and differences in the relationship between key cues and level of assessed pain among nurse participants with differing lengths of pediatric nursing experience are presented and discussed.

Nonrandom Nest-Site Selection in Evening Grosbeaks

Nest-site selection was studied in Evening Grosbeaks (Coccothraustes vespertinus) living in two areas (Eldora and Wild Basin) of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. One hundred and twenty-nine original variables were reduced to compare nesting (NS; n = 49) and nonnesting control (NNS; n = 10) sites using multivariate and univariate statistics. Overall, four of the five variables best discriminating between NS and NNS were measures of habitat density (deciduous stem intersect, deciduous canopy cover) or shrub dispersion (large clumps, irregular matrix). Although there were distinct differences between the two NS with respect to shrub dispersion, canopy cover, and the relative proportion of major vegetation, NS were more open than NNS within the same area. In both Eldora and Wild Basin, grosbeaks showed a preference for ponderosa pines (Pinusponderosa) in which to build high camouflaged nests, close to the main tree trunk, predominantly with southern or northern exposures. We suggest that these nest locations provide (1) high visibility for detection of potential predators, (2) the opportunity for grosbeaks to see their nests from a distance, (3) easy access for departure and arrival, (4) aid in thermoregulation, and (5) protection from wind and rain and increased nest stability.

Ecological analyses of nesting success in evening grosbeaks

SummaryWe studied the nesting success of Evening Grosbeaks (Coccothraustes vespertinus) inhabiting two areas of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado from 1983–1987. Sixty-four nests were followed during building, incubating, brooding, and fledging; 54.7% were successful (young fledged). The largest number of nests failed during incubation. Nests started later were more successful than nests begun earlier in the season. Failure was most likely due to severe weather, abandonment during building, or predation. Specific habitat characteristics of grosbeak nesting sites and where nests were placed in trees were consistently associated with nesting success. Successful nests, when compared with nests that failed, were: (1) built in more open areas characterized by dispersed vegetation and a higher minimum canopy, (2) oriented in more southerly directions, (3) built closer to the main trunk of the nest tree, and (4) built in larger trees. Current ideas about whether or not birds actually select nest-sites are briefly discussed. We conclude that some grosbeaks “optimally select” nest sites where the likelihood of producing fledglings is higher than in other areas.

The Ontogeny of Vocal Communication in the Pika

Vocalizations and behavioral data were obtained from a captive population of young pikas during social interactions with littermates and the mother. Pikas are capable of producing a graded series of three calls at birth which are associated with conditions of hunger, cold, injury, and other forms of physical discomfort. These vocalizations disappear around the time that weaning occurs and pikas become independent. The infant wail and twitter (which appear after the first week) undergo some structural modification as the young mature and become two vocalizations of the adult repertoire. Other vocalizations, the short call, long call, and panic call, which appear from the second through the fifth week, are structurally identical to future adult calls, although in some instances they are used in different situations. While there is an increase in the number of calls in the vocal repertoire as pikas mature, the most distinct ontogenetic shift in pika vocal communication concerns function.