Douglas R. Cavener

The Combined Effects of Tryptophan Starvation and Tryptophan Catabolites Down-Regulate T Cell Receptor ζ-Chain and Induce a Regulatory Phenotype in Naive T Cells

Tryptophan catabolism is a tolerogenic effector system in regulatory T cell function, yet the general mechanisms whereby tryptophan catabolism affects T cell responses remain unclear. We provide evidence that the short-term, combined effects of tryptophan deprivation and tryptophan catabolites result in GCN2 kinase-dependent down-regulation of the TCR ζ-chain in murine CD8+ T cells. TCR ζ down-regulation can be demonstrated in vivo and is associated with an impaired cytotoxic effector function in vitro. The longer-term effects of tryptophan catabolism include the emergence of a regulatory phenotype in naive CD4+CD25− T cells via TGF-β induction of the forkhead transcription factor Foxp3. Such converted cells appear to be CD25+, CD69−, CD45RBlow, CD62L+, CTLA-4+, BTLAlow and GITR+, and are capable of effective control of diabetogenic T cells when transferred in vivo. Thus, both tryptophan starvation and tryptophan catabolites contribute to establishing a regulatory environment affecting CD8+ as well as CD4+ T cell function, and not only is tryptophan catabolism an effector mechanism of tolerance, but it also results in GCN2-dependent generation of autoimmune-preventive regulatory T cells.

The PERK Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2α Kinase Is Required for the Development of the Skeletal System, Postnatal Growth, and the Function and Viability of the Pancreas

ABSTRACT Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF-2α) is typically associated with stress responses and causes a reduction in protein synthesis. However, we found high phosphorylated eIF-2α (eIF-2α[P]) levels in nonstressed pancreata of mice. Administration of glucose stimulated a rapid dephosphorylation of eIF-2α. Among the four eIF-2α kinases present in mammals, PERK is most highly expressed in the pancreas, suggesting that it may be responsible for the high eIF-2α[P] levels found therein. We describe a Perk knockout mutation in mice. Pancreata of Perk−/− mice are morphologically and functionally normal at birth, but the islets of Langerhans progressively degenerate, resulting in loss of insulin-secreting beta cells and development of diabetes mellitus, followed later by loss of glucagon-secreting alpha cells. The exocrine pancreas exhibits a reduction in the synthesis of several major digestive enzymes and succumbs to massive apoptosis after the fourth postnatal week. Perk−/− mice also exhibit skeletal dysplasias at birth and postnatal growth retardation. Skeletal defects include deficient mineralization, osteoporosis, and abnormal compact bone development. The skeletal and pancreatic defects are associated with defects in the rough endoplasmic reticulum of the major secretory cells that comprise the skeletal system and pancreas. The skeletal, pancreatic, and growth defects are similar to those seen in human Wolcott-Rallison syndrome.

Activating Transcription Factor 3 Is Integral to the Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2 Kinase Stress Response

ABSTRACT In response to environmental stress, cells induce a program of gene expression designed to remedy cellular damage or, alternatively, induce apoptosis. In this report, we explore the role of a family of protein kinases that phosphorylate eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2) in coordinating stress gene responses. We find that expression of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), a member of the ATF/CREB subfamily of basic-region leucine zipper (bZIP) proteins, is induced in response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress or amino acid starvation by a mechanism requiring eIF2 kinases PEK (Perk or EIF2AK3) and GCN2 (EIF2AK4), respectively. Increased expression of ATF3 protein occurs early in response to stress by a mechanism requiring the related bZIP transcriptional regulator ATF4. ATF3 contributes to induction of the CHOP transcriptional factor in response to amino acid starvation, and loss of ATF3 function significantly lowers stress-induced expression of GADD34, an eIF2 protein phosphatase regulatory subunit implicated in feedback control of the eIF2 kinase stress response. Overexpression of ATF3 in mouse embryo fibroblasts partially bypasses the requirement for PEK for induction of GADD34 in response to ER stress, further supporting the idea that ATF3 functions directly or indirectly as a transcriptional activator of genes targeted by the eIF2 kinase stress pathway. These results indicate that ATF3 has an integral role in the coordinate gene expression induced by eIF2 kinases. Given that ATF3 is induced by a very large number of environmental insults, this study supports involvement of eIF2 kinases in the coordination of gene expression in response to a more diverse set of stress conditions than previously proposed.

Phosphorylation of the α Subunit of Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2 Is Required for Activation of NF-κB in Response to Diverse Cellular Stresses

ABSTRACT Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) serves to coordinate the transcription of genes in response to diverse environmental stresses. In this report we show that phosphorylation of the α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2) is fundamental to the process by which many stress signals activate NF-κB. Phosphorylation of this translation factor is carried out by a family of protein kinases that each respond to distinct stress conditions. During impaired protein folding and assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), phosphorylation of eIF2α by PEK (Perk or EIF2AK3) is essential for induction of NF-κB transcriptional activity. The mechanism by which NF-κB is activated during ER stress entails the release, but not the degradation, of the inhibitory protein IκB. During amino acid deprivation, phosphorylation of eIF2α by GCN2 (EIF2AK4) signals the activation of NF-κB. Furthermore, inhibition of general translation or transcription by cycloheximide and actinomycin D, respectively, elicits the eIF2α phosphorylation required for induction of NF-κB. Together, these studies suggest that eIF2α kinases monitor and are activated by a range of stress conditions that affect transcription and protein synthesis and assembly, and the resulting eIFα phosphorylation is central to activation of the NF-κB. The absence of NF-κB-mediated transcription and its antiapoptotic function provides an explanation for why eIF2α kinase deficiency in diseases such as Wolcott-Rallison syndrome leads to cellular apoptosis and disease.

The GCN2 eIF2α Kinase Is Required for Adaptation to Amino Acid Deprivation in Mice

ABSTRACT The GCN2 eIF2α kinase is essential for activation of the general amino acid control pathway in yeast when one or more amino acids become limiting for growth. GCN2s function in mammals is unknown, but must differ, since mammals, unlike yeast, can synthesize only half of the standard 20 amino acids. To investigate the function of mammalian GCN2, we have generated a Gcn2 −/− knockout strain of mice. Gcn2 −/− mice are viable, fertile, and exhibit no phenotypic abnormalities under standard growth conditions. However, prenatal and neonatal mortalities are significantly increased in Gcn2 −/− mice whose mothers were reared on leucine-, tryptophan-, or glycine-deficient diets during gestation. Leucine deprivation produced the most pronounced effect, with a 63% reduction in the expected number of viable neonatal mice. Cultured embryonic stem cells derived from Gcn2 −/− mice failed to show the normal induction of eIF2α phosphorylation in cells deprived of leucine. To assess the biochemical effects of the loss of GCN2 in the whole animal, liver perfusion experiments were conducted. Histidine limitation in the presence of histidinol induced a twofold increase in the phosphorylation of eIF2α and a concomitant reduction in eIF2B activity in perfused livers from wild-type mice, but no changes in livers from Gcn2 −/− mice.

Mutations in GLIS3 are responsible for a rare syndrome with neonatal diabetes mellitus and congenital hypothyroidism

We recently described a new neonatal diabetes syndrome associated with congenital hypothyroidism, congenital glaucoma, hepatic fibrosis and polycystic kidneys. Here, we show that this syndrome results from mutations in GLIS3, encoding GLI similar 3, a recently identified transcription factor. In the original family, we identified a frameshift mutation predicted to result in a truncated protein. In two other families with an incomplete syndrome, we found that affected individuals harbor deletions affecting the 11 or 12 5′-most exons of the gene. The absence of a major transcript in the pancreas and thyroid (deletions from both families) and an eye-specific transcript (deletion from one family), together with residual expression of some GLIS3 transcripts, seems to explain the incomplete clinical manifestations in these individuals. GLIS3 is expressed in the pancreas from early developmental stages, with greater expression in β cells than in other pancreatic tissues. These results demonstrate a major role for GLIS3 in the development of pancreatic β cells and the thyroid, eye, liver and kidney.

Suppression of eIF2α kinases alleviates Alzheimer's disease–related plasticity and memory deficits

Expression of long-lasting synaptic plasticity and long-term memory requires protein synthesis, which can be repressed by phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 α-subunit (eIF2α). Elevated phosphorylation of eIF2α has been observed in the brains of Alzheimers disease patients and Alzheimers disease model mice. Therefore, we tested whether suppressing eIF2α kinases could alleviate synaptic plasticity and memory deficits in Alzheimers disease model mice. Genetic deletion of eIF2α kinase PERK prevented enhanced phosphorylation of eIF2α and deficits in protein synthesis, synaptic plasticity and spatial memory in mice that express familial Alzheimers disease–related mutations in APP and PSEN1. Similarly, deletion of another eIF2α kinase, GCN2, prevented impairments of synaptic plasticity and defects in spatial memory exhibited by the Alzheimers disease model mice. Our findings implicate aberrant eIF2α phosphorylation as a previously unidentified molecular mechanism underlying Alzheimers disease–related synaptic pathophysioloy and memory dysfunction and suggest that PERK and GCN2 are potential therapeutic targets for treatment of individuals with Alzheimers disease.

Brain ischemia and reperfusion activates the eukaryotic initiation factor 2α kinase, PERK

Reperfusion after global brain ischemia results initially in a widespread suppression of protein synthesis in neurons, which persists in vulnerable neurons, that is caused by the inhibition of translation initiation as a result of the phosphorylation of the α‐subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α). To identify kinases responsible for eIF2α phosphorylation [eIF2α(P)] during brain reperfusion, we induced ischemia by bilateral carotid artery occlusion followed by post‐ischemic assessment of brain eIF2α(P) in mice with homozygous functional knockouts in the genes encoding the heme‐regulated eIF2α kinase (HRI), or the amino acid‐regulated eIF2α kinase (GCN2). A 10‐fold increase in eIF2α(P) was observed in reperfused wild‐type mice and in the HRI–/– or GCN2–/– mice. However, in all reperfused groups, the RNA‐dependent protein kinase (PKR)‐like endoplasmic reticulum eIF2α kinase (PERK) exhibited an isoform mobility shift on SDS–PAGE, consistent with the activation of the kinase. These data indicate that neither HRI nor GCN2 are required for the large increase in post‐ischemic brain eIF2α(P), and in conjunction with our previous report that eIF2α(P) is produced in the brain of reperfused PKR–/– mice, provides evidence that PERK is the kinase responsible for eIF2α phosphorylation in the early post‐ischemic brain.

GMC oxidoreductases: A newly defined family of homologous proteins with diverse catalytic activities☆

Sequence comparison of Drosophila melanogaster glucose dehydrogenase, Escherichia coli choline dehydrogenase, Aspergillus niger glucose oxidase and Hansenula polymorpha methanol oxidase indicates that these four diverse flavoproteins are homologous, defining a new family of proteins named the GMC oxidoreductases. These enzymes contain a canonical ADP-binding beta alpha beta-fold close to their amino termini as found in other flavoenzymes. This domain is encoded by a single exon of the D. melanogaster glucose dehydrogenase gene.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response Mediated by the PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 Pathway Is Involved in Osteoblast Differentiation Induced by BMP2

To avoid excess accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), eukaryotic cells have signaling pathways from the ER to the cytosol or nucleus. These processes are collectively termed the ER stress response. Double stranded RNA activated protein kinase (PKR)-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) is a major transducer of the ER stress response and directly phosphorylates eIF2α, resulting in translational attenuation. Phosphorylated eIF2α specifically promotes the translation of the transcription factor ATF4. ATF4 plays important roles in osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. Perk−/− mice are reported to exhibit severe osteopenia, and the phenotypes observed in bone tissues are very similar to those of Atf4−/− mice. However, the involvement of the PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 signaling pathway in osteogenesis is unclear. Phosphorylated eIF2α and ATF4 protein levels were attenuated in Perk−/− calvariae, and the gene expression levels of osteocalcin (Ocn) and bone sialoprotein (Bsp), which are targets for ATF4, were also down-regulated. Treatment of wild-type primary osteoblasts with BMP2, which is required for osteoblast differentiation, induced ER stress, leading to an increase in ATF4 protein expression levels. In contrast, the level of ATF4 in Perk−/− osteoblasts was severely diminished. The results indicate that PERK signaling is required for ATF4 activation during osteoblast differentiation. Perk−/− osteoblasts exhibited decreased alkaline phosphatase activities and delayed mineralized nodule formation relative to wild-type cultures. These abnormalities were almost completely restored by the introduction of ATF4 into Perk−/− osteoblasts. Taken together, ER stress occurs during osteoblast differentiation and activates the PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 signaling pathway followed by the promotion of gene expression essential for osteogenesis, such as Ocn and Bsp.