Duane Buhrmester

Children's Perceptions of the Personal Relationships in Their Social Networks.

Relatively few investigators have compared and contrasted the characteristics of different kinds of relationships in childrens social networks. In the present study, 199 fifthand sixth-grade children completed Network of Relationships Inventories, which assessed 10 qualities of their relationships with mothers, fathers, siblings, grandparents, friends, and teachers. Consistent with Weisss (1974) theory, children reported seeking different provisions from different individuals. Mothers and fathers were turned to most often for affection, enhancement of worth, a sense of reliable aid, and instrumental aid. Next to parents, grandparents were turned to most often for affection and enhancement of worth, and teachers were turned to most often for instrumental aid. Friends were the greatest source of companionship, and friends and mothers received the highest ratings of intimacy. Additionally, children reported having more power in their relationships with other children than in those with adults. Conflict was perceived as occurring most often in sibling relationships. Children reported being most satisfied with their relationships with mothers, and they thought that their relationships with mothers and fathers were most important. Discussion centers around the bases for the childrens differentiations of their relationships and the implications for understanding social networks.

Disclosure processes in children and adolescents: Patterns and functions of self-disclosure during childhood and adolescence

As the eyes are the “window of the soul,” so too is self-disclosure a window to peoples pressing feelings, thoughts, and concerns. In this chapter, we view the complex interplay between individual development and interpersonal experiences through the window of self-disclosure. We begin with an overview of our conceptual assumptions about the role that self-disclosure plays in the larger processes of individual development and interpersonal relationships. Next we summarize the current literature on developmental changes in patterns of self-disclosure. This summary provides a jumping-off point for the final sections in which we explore possible links between changing patterns of disclosure and concurrent changes in individual development. Self-disclosure and development In this chapter, self-disclosure is seen as part of a larger process in which social interactions shape, and are shaped by, the development of the individual child. Our thinking about these processes represents a marriage of ideas drawn from H. S. Sullivans (1953) “interpersonal theory” of social development and Erik Eriksons (1968) “psychosocial” theory of personality and identity development. (A full discussion of the specific ways that Sullivans and Eriksons ideas are reflected in our thinking is beyond the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to say that our notion of “needed social input and provisions” is similar to Sullivans notion of social needs, whereas our notion of “developmental issues and concerns” is, in spirit, similar to Eriksons notions of “crises” and “preoccupations.”)

The Changing Functions of Friends in Childhood: A Neo-Sullivanian Perspective

Although friendships are important throughout the lifespan, they seem to be particularly important during middle childhood and adolescence. Prior to this time, parents command center stage; after this period, heterosexual relationships become the primary concern. By examining friendship as it develops into a significant form of relationship during this period, we hope to shed light on the functional importance of friendship. In particular, we consider three ways that friends contribute to social development and adjustment: (a) the fulfillment of interpersonal needs, (b) the socialization of interpersonal competence, & (c) the provision of natural therapeutic experiences. Our approach is developmental in that we trace the path by which friendship grows to its mature form. It is also comparative in that we consider the relative role of friendship within the child’s broad network of relationships.

Methods and Measures: The Network of Relationships Inventory: Behavioral Systems Version:

This paper describes an alternative version of the Network of Relationships Inventory, which was designed to assess how frequently different relationships were used to fulfill the functions of three behavioral systems: attachment, caregiving, and affiliation. Psychometric and validational evidence is presented including: (a) high internal consistency for all scales and composites; (b) a second order factor structure of support and negative interactions for each relationship; (c) moderately high stability over a one year period; (d) moderate convergence among different reporters; (e) theoretically meaningful differences among different relationships; (f) moderate associations among different relationships; (g) associations with the original Network of Relationships Inventory; and (h) relations with observed interactions with mothers and friends.

Mothers and fathers interacting in dyads and triads with normal and hyperactive sons

Mother-son and father-son interactions of families with hyperactive and normal 6- to 12-year-old sons were observed in dyadic and triadic settings. There was more frequent coercion in families with hyperactive boys, especially when mothers and sons interacted in the dyadic setting. This mother-son acrimony carried over to the triadic context, wherein fathers exhibited a rescue-coercion pattern of behavior. Fathers increased, whereas mothers decreased, their demands of sons in triads over dyads, and both fathers and sons became more aversive toward each other in triads than in dyads. This pattern was not as clearly evident in the interactions of families with normal sons. Boys in both groups of families behaved more negatively toward mothers than towad fathers in dyadic interactions. Compared with fathers, mothers made more demands and were more emotionally expressive toward their sons

Gender Differences in Early Adolescents’ Relationship Qualities, Self-Efficacy, and Depression Symptoms

Relationship qualities and low perceived social self-efficacy might be associated with early adolescents’depression symptoms and with later gender differences in depression prevalence. Gender comparisons in the means, and associations with depression symptoms of self-rated intimate support, conflict, intimate support self-efficacy, and conflict management self-efficacy were examined for predominantly White community-recruited 12-year-olds (114 boys, 109 girls). Perceived low parental intimate support, high conflict with parents, and lower perceived self-efficacy (both types) were related to depression symptoms. Girls reported greater best friend intimate support and less conflict, greater self-efficacy (both types), and stronger conflict-depression associations than did boys. For boys, but not for girls, conflict management self-efficacy contributed unique variance to depression after intimate support and conflict were controlled. Incidentally, sons of fathers with more education reported more paternal intimate support than did sons of less educated fathers; daughters showed the opposite pattern, which generates questions for further research.

Prosocial behavior in hyperactive boys: effects of stimulant medication and comparison with normal boys.

To clarify the effects of stimulant medication on hyperactive (ADHD) childrens prosocial as well as aversive behaviors toward peers, 19 hyperactive boys, aged 7–12, were observed as they acted as “leaders” for groups of 2–4 unfamiliar younger children. In a doubleblind crossover design, subjects were observed twice, once on placebo and again on a moderate (0.6 mg/kg) dose of methylphenidate (Ritalin). Thirteen comparison boys, without problems in attention and behavior, were also observed in the same leader roles. Relative to comparison boys, hyperactive boys on placebo were more socially engaged, used more aversive leadership techniques, and were rated as less likable by the younger children in their groups. Aversive social behaviors were the strongest predictors of being disliked by the younger children. No differences were found between comparison and unmedicated hyperactive boys for any aspect of prosocial behavior. Stimulant medication had a general dampening effect on social behavior, significantly reducing social engagement and increasing (mild) dysphoria relative to the placebo condition. The implications of these findings for understanding and treating the peer relationship difficulties of hyperactive children are discussed.

Anger control in response to verbal provocation: Effects of stimulant medication for boys with ADHD

Although stimulant medication reduces hyperactive childrens aggression in naturalistic settings, stimulant effects on anger control have not been demonstrated. We therefore assessed the role of methylphenidate in enhancing response to verbal provocation from familiar peers and from role-playing adults. Twenty-four boys with attention deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD), aged 6–12, received small-group cognitivebehavioral intervention in anger management skills. During posttraining assessments, the children were randomly assigned to placebo versus. 6 mg/kg of methylphenidate. In the peer provocations, methylphenidate enhanced self-control, decreased physical retaliation, and marginally increased the display of coping strategies. Medication and prompting were minimally beneficial in the delayed, adult-administered generalization assessments. Among the issues discussed are (a) differences between peer and adult provocation and (b) the roles of medication dosage and multimodality intervention for promoting socially competent behavior in children with ADHD.

Loneliness, Sex-Role Orientation and Group Life: A Social Needs Perspective

Most group dynamics researchers, understandably enough, have been more concerned with group-level processes than with the needs and feelings of individual group members. Thus, while many important structural and dynamic group phenomena have been identified-social facilitation, rejection of deviants, coalition formation, creation of leadership and status hierarchies-relatively little is known about the needs that cause individuals to join groups in the first place and that give groups so much power over their members. Presumably, individuals join groups and yield to group demands because group life offers certain rewards which cannot be obtained easily or at all in nongroup settings. We know intuitively that being rejected by attractive groups or consigned to low-status positions within them is psychologically painful, but most group researchers have taken this for granted rather than attempting to explain it. In the present chapter we consider how loneliness, an emotional state that arises when certain social needs go unmet, may be related to group life.

Children’s, Parents’, and Observers’ Perspectives on Sibling Relationships

One of the most noteworthy features of sibling relationships is their marked diversity. Striking differences in sibling relationships exist across cultures. Similarly, considerable differences exist within any one culture or subculture. Some sibling relationships are egalitarian, similar in some respects to those between friends. Others are asymmetrical, requiring one child to be responsible for the other. Sibling relationships vary not only in the distribution of power and responsibility, but also in affective quality. Relationships can be close or distant, harmonious or conflicted, cooperative or competitive.