Durk Gorter

Linguistic Landscape and Minority Languages

This paper focuses on the linguistic landscape of two streets in two multilingual cities in Friesland (Netherlands) and the Basque Country (Spain) where a minority language is spoken, Basque or Frisian. The paper analyses the use of the minority language (Basque or Frisian), the state language (Spanish or Dutch) and English as an international language on language signs. It compares the use of these languages as related to the differences in language policy regarding the minority language in these two settings and to the spread of English in Europe. The data include over 975 pictures of language signs that were analysed so as to determine the number of languages used, the languages on the signs and the characteristics of bilingual and multilingual signs. The findings indicate that the linguistic landscape is related to the official language policy regarding minority languages and that there are important differences between the two settings.

Introduction: The Study of the Linguistic Landscape as a New Approach to Multilingualism

Language is all around us in textual form as it is displayed on shop windows, commercial signs, posters, official notices, traffic signs, etc. Most of the time people do not pay much attention to the ‘linguistic landscape’ that surrounds them. However, in recent years an increasing number of researchers have started to take a closer look and study the language texts that are present in public space. This special issue of the International Journal of Multilingualism reports on a number of case studies around the world. According to the dictionary, ‘landscape’ as a noun has basically two meanings. On the one hand the more literal meaning of the piece or expanse of scenery that can be seen at one time from one place. On the other hand, a picture representing such a view of natural inland scenery, as distinguished from sea picture or a portrait. In the studies of the linguistic landscape presented here, one can say that both meanings are also used. On the one hand the literal study of the languages as they are used in the signs, and on the other hand also the representation of the languages, which is of particular importance because it relates to identity and cultural globalisation, to the growing presence of English and to revitalisation of minority languages. The concept of linguistic landscape, however, has been used in several different ways. In the literature the concept has frequently been used in a rather general sense for the description and analysis of the language situation in a certain country (e.g. for Malta by Sciriha & Vassallo, 2001) or for the presence and use of many languages in a larger geographic area (e.g. the Baltic area by Kreslins, 2003). An overview of the languages that are spoken is then referred to as the linguistic landscape. In this more or less loose sense of the word linguistic landscape can be synonymous with or at least related to concepts such as linguistic market, linguistic mosaic, ecology of languages, diversity of languages or the linguistic situation. In those cases linguistic landscape refers to the social context in which more than one language is present. It implies the use in speech or writing of more than one language and thus of multilingualism. Sometimes the meaning of linguistic landscape is extended to include a description of the history of languages or different degrees in the knowledge of languages. Or more narrowly, it can refer to language internal variation in parts of just one language, in particular in relation to its vocabulary, but also in

Linguistic Landscapes in a Multilingual World

This article offers an overview of the main developments in the field of linguistic landscape studies. A large number of research projects and publications indicate an increasing interest in applied linguistics in the use of written texts in urban spaces, especially in bilingual and multilingual settings. The article looks into some of the pioneer studies that helped open up this line of research and summarizes some of the studies that created the springboard for its rapid expansion in recent years. The focus is on current research (from 2007 onward), including studies that illustrate main theoretical approaches and methodological development as key issues of the expanding field, in particular when applied in settings of societal multilingualism. Publications on the linguistic landscape cover a wide range of innovative theoretical and empirical studies that deal with issues related to multilingualism, literacy, multimodality, language policy, linguistic diversity, and minority languages, among others. The article shows some examples of the use of the linguistic landscape as a research tool and a data source to address a number of issues in multilingualism. The article also explores some possible future directions. Overall, the various emerging perspectives in linguistic landscape research can deepen our understanding of languages in urban spaces, language users, and societal multilingualism in general.

The Linguistic Landscape as an Additional Source of Input in Second Language Acquisition.

Abstract In this article we explore the role that the linguistic landscape, in the sense of all the written language in the public space, can have in second language acquisition (SLA). The linguistic landscape has symbolic and informative functions and it is multimodal, because it combines visual and printed texts, and multilingual, because it uses several languages. In this paper we look at its potential use as a source of input in SLA, in general, and in the acquisition of pragmatic competence, in particular. We also inquire into the role of the linguistic landscape in the acquisition of multimodal literacy skills and multicompetence. We conclude that the linguistic landscape is a learning context and can also be used for raising awareness in SLA.

Multilingual interaction and minority languages: Proficiency and language practices in education and society

In this plenary speech I examine multilingual interaction in a number of European regions in which minority languages are being revitalized. Education is a crucial variable, but the wider society is equally significant. The context of revitalization is no longer bilingual but increasingly multilingual. I draw on the results of a long-running project on the ‘Added value of multilingualism and diversity in educational contexts’ among secondary school students, and show that there are interesting differences and similarities between the minority language (Basque or Frisian), the majority language (Spanish or Dutch) and English. The focus on multilingualism is applied inside and outside the school. The discussion demonstrates the complexity of everyday multilingual practices and the outcomes have implications for the gap between education and society and for further research into the linkages between language proficiency and actual language practices.

Studying Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape

Being visible may be as important for minority languages as being heard. Traditional research on minority languages focuses on language maintenance and language shift, on language endangerment and revitalization, on language transmission in the family, on education, and on language policies in other social domains such as the media. Although literacy has become an important issue also for speakers of minority languages, much less attention has been given to the written displays of minority languages in the public space. In this volume, our aim is to explore the contribution of linguistic landscape research to the understanding of the dynamics of minority language situations, with an explicit focus on Europe. We wish to add a new perspective to the long history of studies of linguistic minorities, because we believe the aspect of the visibility of minority languages in public space has received too little attention in traditional minority language research. The linguistic landscape approach seems particularly appropriate for a number of reasons. First, it adopts an all-encompassing view on written language in the public space, paying attention to all signs, rather than limiting its scope to the study of predominantly one type of signs. Second, linguistic landscape research not only studies the signs, but it investigates as well who initiates, creates, places and reads them. Moreover, linguistic landscape research as presented in this volume looks at how the linguistic landscape is manipulated — consciously or unconsciously — in order to confirm or to resist existing or presumed language prestige patterns and hierarchies.

The Diversity of Multilingualism in Education

Abstract This article analyzes diversity as related to different types of multilingual education. Diversity in education is linked to different factors that can be classified as linguistic (language distance, different scripts, etc.), sociolinguistic status (minority, official, international, immigrant, etc.) and educational (school subjects, medium of instruction, age of introduction, methodologies). Language practices can be an important part of the make-up of language diversity among multilingual speakers at a micro level. The paper discusses the Continua of Multilingual Education as a tool to classify and compare different types of multilingual schools all over the world as a more efficient way to deal with diversity in multilingual education than traditional typologies. The advantages of the new tool can be shown by applying it to the case of multilingual education in the Basque Country in Spain, where Basque, Spanish, English and sometimes French, are the languages used by different actors in the education system. The paper also deals with diversity as linked to sustainable development and focuses on the advantages of multilingual education.

The Revitalization of Basque and the Linguistic Landscape of Donostia-San Sebastián

Efforts at protecting and revitalizing minority languages are a worldwide phenomenon supported by state, regional or local authorities and by numerous NGOs. Many of these languages are severely endangered (Moseley, 2009) and efforts are usually too weak to be successful in safeguarding a sustainable future for minority languages. In Europe, indige nous minority language groups try to develop ways to revive their languages. Official language policy plays an important role and the Basque language is no exception.

Focus on Multilingualism as an Approach in Educational Contexts

“Focus on Multilingualism” is a holistic approach to the study of multilingualism in educational contexts. This approach can be characterized by focusing on the following three elements: the multilingual speaker, the whole linguistic repertoire and the context. Multilingual speakers use languages as a resource to communicate successfully and to develop their own identities through multilingual practices. In this chapter, “Focus on Multilingualism” is illustrated with examples from multilingual education in the Basque Country.

Minority languages and sustainable translanguaging: threat or opportunity?

ABSTRACT Traditionally, languages have been separated from each other in the school curriculum and there has been little consideration for resources that learners possess as emergent multilinguals. This policy is aimed at the protection of minority languages and has sought to avoid cross-linguistic influence and codeswitching. However, these ideas have been challenged by current multilingual ideologies in a society that is becoming more globalised. Within the field of multilingual education studies, there is a strong trend towards replacing the idea of isolated linguistic systems with approaches that take multilingual speakers and their linguistic repertoire as a reference. This article focuses on translanguaging, a concept that was developed in bilingual schools in Wales and refers both to pedagogically oriented strategies and to spontaneous language practices. In this article, translanguaging will be analysed as related to the protection and promotion of minority languages. Examples from multilingual education involving minority languages will be shown in order to see how translanguaging can be at the same time a threat for the survival of minority languages and an opportunity for their development. A set of principles that can contribute to sustainable translanguaging in a context of regional minority language use will be discussed.