Dyke P. McEwen

Mice Lacking Sodium Channel β1 Subunits Display Defects in Neuronal Excitability, Sodium Channel Expression, and Nodal Architecture

Sodium channel β1 subunits modulate α subunit gating and cell surface expression and participate in cell adhesive interactions in vitro. β1(-/-) mice appear ataxic and display spontaneous generalized seizures. In the optic nerve, the fastest components of the compound action potential are slowed and the number of mature nodes of Ranvier is reduced, but Nav1.6, contactin, caspr 1, and Kv1 channels are all localized normally at nodes. At the ultrastructural level, the paranodal septate-like junctions immediately adjacent to the node are missing in a subset of axons, suggesting that β1 may participate in axo-glial communication at the periphery of the nodal gap. Sodium currents in dissociated hippocampal neurons are normal, but Nav1.1 expression is reduced and Nav1.3 expression is increased in a subset of pyramidal neurons in the CA2/CA3 region, suggesting a basis for the epileptic phenotype. Our results show that β1 subunits play important roles in the regulation of sodium channel density and localization, are involved in axo-glial communication at nodes of Ranvier, and are required for normal action potential conduction and control of excitability in vivo.

Ciliary Targeting of Olfactory CNG Channels Requires the CNGB1b Subunit and the Kinesin-2 Motor Protein, KIF17

Nonmotile cilia on olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) compartmentalize signaling molecules, including odorant receptors and cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels, allowing for efficient, spatially confined responses to sensory stimuli . Little is known about the mechanisms of the ciliary targeting of olfactory CNG channels, composed of three subunits: CNGA2, CNGA4, and CNGB1b . Recent reports suggest that subunit composition of the retinal CNG channel influences localization, leading to disease . However, the mechanistic role of subunits in properly targeting native olfactory CNG channels remains unclear. Here, we show that heteromeric assembly with CNGB1b, containing a critical carboxy-terminal motif (RVxP), is required for ciliary trafficking of olfactory CNG channels. Movement of proteins within the cilia is governed by intraflagellar transport (IFT), a process that facilitates bidirectional movement of cargo along microtubules. Work in C. elegans has established that heterotrimeric and homodimeric kinesin-2 family members play a critical role in anterograde transport . In mammalian systems, the heterotrimeric KIF3a/KIF3b/KAP-3 complex plays a clear role in IFT; however, no role has been established for KIF17, the mammalian homolog of OSM-3 . Here, we demonstrate that KIF17 is required for olfactory CNG channel targeting, providing novel insights into mechanisms of mammalian ciliary transport.

Single molecule imaging reveals differences in microtubule track selection between Kinesin motors.

Molecular motors differentially recognize and move cargo along discrete microtubule subpopulations in cells, resulting in preferential transport and targeting of subcellular cargoes.

A Novel Epilepsy Mutation in the Sodium Channel SCN1A Identifies a Cytoplasmic Domain for β Subunit Interaction

A mutation in the sodium channel SCN1A was identified in a small Italian family with dominantly inherited generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+). The mutation, D1866Y, alters an evolutionarily conserved aspartate residue in the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the sodium channel α subunit. The mutation decreased modulation of the α subunit by β1, which normally causes a negative shift in the voltage dependence of inactivation in oocytes. There was less of a shift with the mutant channel, resulting in a 10 mV difference between the wild-type and mutant channels in the presence of β1. This shift increased the magnitude of the window current, which resulted in more persistent current during a voltage ramp. Computational analysis suggests that neurons expressing the mutant channels will fire an action potential with a shorter onset delay in response to a threshold current injection, and that they will fire multiple action potentials with a shorter interspike interval at a higher input stimulus. These results suggest a causal relationship between a positive shift in the voltage dependence of sodium channel inactivation and spontaneous seizure activity. Direct interaction between the cytoplasmic C-terminal domain of the wild-typeα subunit with the β1or β3 subunit was first demonstrated by yeast two-hybrid analysis. The SCN1A peptide K1846-R1886 is sufficient for β subunit interaction. Coimmunoprecipitation from transfected mammalian cells confirmed the interaction between the C-terminal domains of the α and β1 subunits. The D1866Y mutation weakens this interaction, demonstrating a novel molecular mechanism leading to seizure susceptibility.

Hypomorphic CEP290/NPHP6 mutations result in anosmia caused by the selective loss of G proteins in cilia of olfactory sensory neurons

Cilia regulate diverse functions such as motility, fluid balance, and sensory perception. The cilia of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) compartmentalize the signaling proteins necessary for odor detection; however, little is known regarding the mechanisms of protein sorting/entry into olfactory cilia. Nephrocystins are a family of ciliary proteins likely involved in cargo sorting during transport from the basal body to the ciliary axoneme. In humans, loss-of-function of the cilia–centrosomal protein CEP290/NPHP6 is associated with Joubert and Meckel syndromes, whereas hypomorphic mutations result in Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), a form of early-onset retinal dystrophy. Here, we report that CEP290–LCA patients exhibit severely abnormal olfactory function. In a mouse model with hypomorphic mutations in CEP290 [retinal dystrophy-16 mice (rd16)], electro-olfactogram recordings revealed an anosmic phenotype analogous to that of CEP290–LCA patients. Despite the loss of olfactory function, cilia of OSNs remained intact in the rd16 mice. As in wild type, CEP290 localized to dendritic knobs of rd16 OSNs, where it was in complex with ciliary transport proteins and the olfactory G proteins Golf and Gγ13. Interestingly, we observed defective ciliary localization of Golf and Gγ13 but not of G protein-coupled odorant receptors or other components of the odorant signaling pathway in the rd16 OSNs. Our data implicate distinct mechanisms for ciliary transport of olfactory signaling proteins, with CEP290 being a key mediator involved in G protein trafficking. The assessment of olfactory function can, therefore, serve as a useful diagnostic tool for genetic screening of certain syndromic ciliary diseases.

Rab-GTPase-dependent Endocytic Recycling of KV1.5 in Atrial Myocytes

The number of ion channels expressed on the cell surface shapes the complex electrical response of excitable cells. Maintaining a balance between anterograde and retrograde trafficking of channel proteins is vital in regulating steady-state cell surface expression. Kv1.5 is an important voltage-gated K+ channel in the cardiovascular system underlying the ultra-rapid rectifying potassium current (Ikur), a major repolarizing current in atrial myocytes, and regulating the resting membrane potential and excitability of smooth muscle cells. Defects in the expression of Kv1.5 are associated with pathological states such as chronic atrial fibrillation and hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. There is, thus, substantial interest in understanding the mechanisms regulating cell surface channel levels. Here, we investigated the internalization and recycling of Kv1.5 in the HL-1 immortalized mouse atrial myocytes. Kinetic studies indicate that Kv1.5 is rapidly internalized to a perinuclear region where it co-localizes with the early endosomal marker, EEA1. Importantly, we identified that a population of Kv1.5, originating on the cell surface, internalized and recycled back to the plasma membrane. Notably, Kv1.5 recycling processes are driven by specific Rab-dependent endosomal compartments. Thus, co-expression of GDP-locked Rab4S22N and Rab11S25N dominant-negative mutants decreased the steady-state Kv1.5 surface levels, whereas GTPase-deficient Rab4Q67L and Rab11Q70L mutants increased steady-state Kv1.5 surface levels. These data reveal an unexpected dynamic trafficking of Kv1.5 at the myocyte plasma membrane and demonstrate a role for recycling in the maintenance of steady-state ion channel surface levels.

Olfactory Cilia: Linking Sensory Cilia Function and Human Disease

The olfactory system gives us an awareness of our immediate environment by allowing us to detect airborne stimuli. The components necessary for detection of these odorants are compartmentalized in the cilia of olfactory sensory neurons. Cilia are microtubule-based organelles, which can be found projecting from the surface of almost any mammalian cell, and are critical for proper olfactory function. Mislocalization of ciliary proteins and/or the loss of cilia cause impaired olfactory function, which is now recognized as a clinical manifestation of a broad class of human diseases, termed ciliopathies. Future work investigating the mechanisms of olfactory cilia function will provide us important new information regarding the pathogenesis of human sensory perception diseases.

Gene therapy rescues cilia defects and restores olfactory function in a mammalian ciliopathy model.

Cilia are evolutionarily conserved microtubule-based organelles that are crucial for diverse biological functions, including motility, cell signaling and sensory perception. In humans, alterations in the formation and function of cilia manifest clinically as ciliopathies, a growing class of pleiotropic genetic disorders. Despite the substantial progress that has been made in identifying genes that cause ciliopathies, therapies for these disorders are not yet available to patients. Although mice with a hypomorphic mutation in the intraflagellar transport protein IFT88 (Ift88Tg737Rpw mice, also known as ORPK mice) have been well studied, the relevance of IFT88 mutations to human pathology is unknown. We show that a mutation in IFT88 causes a hitherto unknown human ciliopathy. In vivo complementation assays in zebrafish and mIMCD3 cells show the pathogenicity of this newly discovered allele. We further show that ORPK mice are functionally anosmic as a result of the loss of cilia on their olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). Notably, adenoviral-mediated expression of IFT88 in mature, fully differentiated OSNs of ORPK mice is sufficient to restore ciliary structures and rescue olfactory function. These studies are the first to use in vivo therapeutic treatment to reestablish cilia in a mammalian ciliopathy. More broadly, our studies indicate that gene therapy is a viable option for cellular and functional rescue of the complex ciliary organelle in established differentiated cells.

Antiarrhythmic Drug-Induced Internalization of the Atrial-Specific K+ Channel Kv1.5

Conventional antiarrhythmic drugs target the ion permeability of channels, but increasing evidence suggests that functional ion channel density can also be modified pharmacologically. Kv1.5 mediates the ultrarapid potassium current (IKur) that controls atrial action potential duration. Given the atrial-specific expression of Kv1.5 and its alterations in human atrial fibrillation, significant effort has been made to identify novel channel blockers. In this study, treatment of HL-1 atrial myocytes expressing Kv1.5-GFP with the class I antiarrhythmic agent quinidine resulted in a dose- and temperature-dependent internalization of Kv1.5, concomitant with channel block. This quinidine-induced channel internalization was confirmed in acutely dissociated neonatal myocytes. Channel internalization was subunit-dependent, activity-independent, stereospecific, and blocked by pharmacological disruption of the endocytic machinery. Pore block and channel internalization partially overlap in the structural requirements for drug binding. Surprisingly, quinidine-induced endocytosis was calcium-dependent and therefore unrecognized by previous biophysical studies focused on isolating channel-drug interactions. Importantly, whereas acute quinidine-induced internalization was reversible, chronic treatment led to channel degradation. Together, these data reveal a novel mechanism of antiarrhythmic drug action and highlight the possibility for new agents that selectively modulate the stability of channel protein in the membrane as an approach for treating cardiac arrhythmias.

Caveolin regulates kv1.5 trafficking to cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains.

The targeting of ion channels to cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains has emerged as a novel mechanism of ion channel localization. Previously, we reported that Kv1.5, a prominent cardiovascular K+ channel α-subunit, localizes to caveolar microdomains. However, the mechanisms regulating Kv1.5 targeting and the functional significance of this localization are largely unknown. In this study, we demonstrate a role for caveolin in the trafficking of Kv1.5 to lipid raft microdomains where cholesterol modulates channel function. In cells lacking endogenous caveolin-1 or -3, the association of Kv1.5 with low-density, detergent-resistant membrane fractions requires coexpression with exogenous caveolin, which can form channel-caveolin complexes. Caveolin is not required for cell surface expression, however, and caveolin-trafficking mutants sequester Kv1.5, but not Kv2.1, in intracellular compartments, resulting in a loss of functional cell surface channel. Coexpression with wild type caveolin-1 does not alter Kv1.5 current density; rather, it induces depolarizing shifts in steady-state activation and inactivation. These shifts are analogous to those produced by elevation of membrane cholesterol. Together, these results show that caveolin modulates channel function by regulating trafficking to cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains.