E. Dzifcakova

SOLAR TRANSITION REGION LINES OBSERVED BY THE INTERFACE REGION IMAGING SPECTROGRAPH: DIAGNOSTICS FOR THE O IV AND Si IV LINES

The formation of the transition region O IV and Si IV lines observable by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) is investigated for both Maxwellian and non-Maxwellian conditions characterized by a κ-distribution exhibiting a high-energy tail. The Si IV lines are formed at lower temperatures than the O IV lines for all κ. In non-Maxwellian situations with lower κ, the contribution functions are shifted to lower temperatures. Combined with the slope of the differential emission measure, it is possible for the Si IV lines to be formed at very different regions of the solar transition region than the O IV lines; possibly close to the solar chromosphere. Such situations might be discernible by IRIS. It is found that photoexcitation can be important for the Si IV lines, but is negligible for the O IV lines. The usefulness of the O IV ratios for density diagnostics independently of κ is investigated and it is found that the O IV 1404.78 A/1399.77 A ratio provides a good density diagnostics except for very low T combined with extreme non-Maxwellian situations.

KAPPA: A PACKAGE FOR SYNTHESIS OF OPTICALLY THIN SPECTRA FOR THE NON-MAXWELLIAN κ-DISTRIBUTIONS BASED ON THE CHIANTI DATABASE

The non-Maxwellian �-distributions have been detected in the solar transition region and flares. These distributions are characterized by a high-energy tail and a near-Maxwellian core and are known to have significant impact on the resulting optically thin spectra arising from collisionally dominated astrophysical plasmas. We developed the KAPPA package a for synthesis of such line and continuum spectra. The package is based on the freely available CHIANTI database and software, and can be used in a similar manner. Ionization and recombination rates together with the ionization equilibria are

Diagnostics of the κ-distribution using Si III lines in the solar transition region

Aims. The solar transition region satisfies the conditions for appearance of the non-thermal κ-distribution. We aim to prove the occurrence of the non-thermal κ-distribution in the solar transition region and diagnose its parameters. Methods. The intensity ratios of Si iii lines observed by SUMER in 1100‐1320 A region do not correspond to the line ratios computed under the assumption of the Maxwellian electron distribution. We computed a set of synthetic Si iii spectra for the electron κ-distributions with different values of the parameter κ. We had to include the radiation field in our calculations to explain the observed line ratios. We propose diagnostics of the parameter κ and other plasma parameters and analyze the effect of the different gradient of differential emission measures (DEM) on the presented calculations. Results. The used line ratios are sensitive to T, density and the parameter κ. All these parameters were determined from the SUMER observations for the coronal hole (CH), quiet Sun (QS) and active region (AR) using our proposed diagnostics. A strong gradient of DEM influences the diagnosed parameters of plasma. The essential contributions to the total line intensities do not correspond to single T but a wider range of T, and they originate in different atmospheric layers. The amount of the contributions from these atmospheric layers depends on the gradient of DEM and the shape of the electron distribution function. Conclusions. The κ-distribution is able to explain the observed Si iii line spectrum in the transition region. The degree of nonthermality increases with the activity of the solar region, it is lower for CH and higher for the AR. The DEM influences the diagnosed T and Ne but it has only little effect on the diagnostics of the parameter κ.

On the physical meaning of n-distributions in solar flares

Aims. We investigate the physical meaning of the n-distributions detected in solar flares. Methods. We consider a Maxwellian velocity distribution with a velocity drift. This distribution is analytically integrated to obtain the energy distribution, and its stability is investigated numerically using a fully electromagnetic particle-in-cell code. Results. It is shown that the derived moving Maxwellian energy distribution is very similar to the n-distribution, especially in their high-energy parts. Both these distributions are mutually fitted and a relation between their parameters found. Contrary to the ndistribution, the moving Maxwellian distribution has a simple physical meaning, e.g., the electron component of the return current in the beam-plasma system. However, for high drift velocities of such a component, the moving Maxwellian distribution is unstable. Therefore to keep the form of this distribution similar to the n-distribution, some stabilization processes are necessary. If so, then the high intensities of the Sixiid 5.56 A and 5.82 A satellite lines and their evolution in solar flares can be explained by moving Maxwellian distributions instead of then-distributions. Thus, our previous results connected with the n-distributions can be understood in a new, physically profound way.

The bound-bound and free-free radiative losses for the nonthermal distributions in solar and stellar coronae

Context. The radiative-loss function is an important ingredient in the physics of the solar corona, transition region, and flares. Aims. We investigate the radiative losses due to the bound-bound transitions and bremsstrahlung for nonthermal κ- and n-distributions. Methods. The bound-bound radiative losses are computed by integrating synthetic spectra. An analytical expression is derived for nonthermal bremsstrahlung. The bremsstrahlung is computed numerically using accurate values of the free-free Gaunt factor. Results. We find that the changes in radiative-loss functions due to nonthermal distributions are several times greater than the errors due to the missing contribution of the free-bound continuum or errors in atomic data. For κ-distributions, the radiative-loss functions are in general weaker than for Maxwellian distribution, with a few exceptions caused by the behavior of Fe. The peaks of the radiative-loss functions are in general flatter. The situation is opposite for n-distributions, for which the radiative-loss functions have higher and narrower peaks. Local minima and maxima of the radiative-loss functions may also be shifted. The contribution from bremsstrahlung only changes by a few percent except in the extreme nonthermal case of κ = 2. Stability analysis reveals that the X-ray loops are stable against the radiatively-driven thermal instability.

Signatures of the non-Maxwellian κ-distributions in optically thin line spectra - I. Theory and synthetic Fe IX–XIII spectra

We investigate the possibility of diagnosing the degree of departure from the Maxwellian distribution using single-ion spectra originating in astrophysical plasmas in collisional ionization equilibrium. New atomic data for excitation of Fe IX-XIII are integrated under the assumption of a kappa-distribution of electron energies. Diagnostic methods using lines of a single ion formed at any wavelength are explored. Such methods minimize uncertainties from the ionization and recombination rates, as well as the possible presence of non-equilibrium ionization. Approximations to the collision strengths are also investigated. The calculated intensities of most of the Fe IX-XIII EUV lines show consistent behaviour with kappa at constant temperature. Intensities of these lines decrease with kappa, with the vast majority of ratios of strong lines showing little or no sensitivity to kappa. Several of the line ratios, especially involving temperature-sensitive lines, show a sensitivity to kappa that is of the order of several tens of per cent, or, in the case of Fe IX, up to a factor of two. Forbidden lines in the near-ultraviolet, visible, or infrared parts of the spectrum are an exception, with smaller intensity changes or even a reverse behaviour with kappa. The most conspicuous example is the Fe X 6378A red line, whose intensity incerases with kappa. This line is a potentially strong indicator of departures from the Maxwellian distribution. We find it possible to perform density diagnostics independently of kappa, with many Fe XI-XIII line ratios showing strong density-sensitivity and negligible sensitivity to kappa and temperature. We also tested different averaging of the collision strengths. It is found that averaging over 0.01 interval in log(E/Ryd) is sufficient to produce accurate distribution-averaged collision strengths at temperatures of the ion formation in ionization equilibrium.

The ionization equilibrium and flare line spectra for the electron distribution with a power-law tail

Context. Electron energy spectra exhibiting a high-energy tail are commonly observed during solar flares. Aims. We investigate the influence of the high-energy tail and thermal or nonthermal plasma bulk on the ionization equilibrium of Si and Si flare line spectra. Methods. We construct a realistically composed distribution that reflects the fits to RHESSI observations. We describe the high-energy tail by a power-law distribution and the bulk of the electron distribution by either the Maxwellian or n-distribution. The shape of this composed distribution is described by three parameters: the ratio of the plasma bulk density to the density of the high-energy tail, the power-law index of the high-energy tail, and the parameter n, which describes the bulk of the distribution. Results. Both the plasma bulk and the high-energy tail change the ionization equilibrium. The relative ion abundances are sensitive to the shape of the plasma bulk, but are much less sensitive to the high-energy tail. The high-energy tail increases the ratio of temperaturesensitive lines Si XIV λ5.22/Si XIII λ5.68. Because this ratio can be fitted with a thermal distribution with higher temperature, the highenergy tail influences the temperature diagnostics from flare lines. The high-energy tail has only a small effect on the ratio of the satellite-to-allowed Si XIId/Si XIII lines, which are dominantly sensitive on the shape of the plasma bulk. This enables us to perform an accurate diagnostic of the parameter n describing the plasma bulk. Conclusions. The realistically composed distribution is able to explain the observed features of the RESIK X-ray flare line spectra.

The non-Maxwellian continuum in the X-ray, UV, and radio range

Aims. We investigate the X-ray, UV, and also the radio continuum arising from plasmas with a non-Maxwellian distribution of electron energies. The two investigated types of distributions are the κ -a ndn-distributions. Methods. We derived analytical expressions for the non-Maxwellian bremsstrahlung and free-bound continuum spectra. The spectra were calculated using available cross-sections. Then we compared the bremsstrahlung spectra arising from the different bremsstrahlung cross-sections that are routinely used in solar physics. Results. The behavior of the bremsstrahlung spectra for the non-Maxwellian distributions is highly dependent on the assumed type of the distribution. At flare temperatures and hard X-ray energies, the bremsstrahlung is greatly increased for κ-distributions and exhibits a strong high-energy tail. With decreasing κ, the maximum of the bremsstrahlung spectrum decreases and moves to higher wavelengths. In contrast, the maximum of the spectra for n-distributions increases with increasing n, and the spectrum then falls off very steeply with decreasing wavelength. In the millimeter radio range, the non-Maxwellian bremsstrahlung spectra are almost parallel to the thermal bremsstrahlung. Therefore, the non-Maxwellian distributions cannot be detected by off-limb observations made by the ALMA instrument. The free-bound continua are also highly dependent on the assumed type of the distribution. For n-distributions, the ionization edges disappear and a smooth continuum spectrum is formed for n 5. Opposite behavior occurs for κ-distributions where the ionization edges are in general significantly enhanced, with details depending on κ and T through the ionization equilibrium. We investigated how the non-Maxwellian κ-distributions can be determined from the observations of the continuum and conclude that one can sample the low-energy part of the distribution from the continuum.

IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF A TRANSIENT CORONAL LOOP: EVIDENCE FOR THE NON-MAXWELLIAN κ-DISTRIBUTIONS

We report on the SDO/AIA and Hinode/EIS observations of a transient coronal loop. The loop brightens up in the same location after the disappearance of an arcade formed during a B8.9-class microflare three hours earlier. EIS captures this loop during its brightening phase as observed in most of the AIA filters. We use the AIA data to study the evolution of the loop, as well as to perform the DEM diagnostics as a function of �. Fe XI–Fe XIII lines observed by EIS are used to perform the diagnostics of electron density and subsequently the diagnostics of �. Using ratios involving the Fe XI 257.772u selfblend, we diagnose �. 2, i.e., an extremely non-Maxwellian distribution. Using the predicted Fe line intensities derived from the DEMs as a function of �, we show that, with decreasing �, all combinations of ratios of line intensities converge to the observed values, confirming the diagnosed �. 2. These results represent the first positive diagnostics of �-distributions in the solar corona despite the limitations imposed by calibration uncertainties.

On the Area Expansion of Magnetic Flux Tubes in Solar Active Regions

We calculated the 3D distribution of the area expansion factors in a potential magnetic field extrapolated from the high-resolution \textit{Hinode}/SOT magnetogram of a quiescent active region NOAA 11482. Retaining only closed loops within the computational box, we show that the distribution of area expansion factors show significant structure. Loop-like structures characterized by locally lower values of the expansion factor are embedded in a smooth background. These loop-like flux-tubes have squashed cross-sections and expand with height. The distribution of the expansion factors show overall increase with height, allowing an active region core characterized by low values of the expansion factor to be distinguished. The area expansion factors obtained from extrapolation of the SOT magnetogram are compared to those obtained from an approximation of the observed magnetogram by a series of 134 submerged charges. This approximation retains the general flux distribution in the observed magnetogram, but removes the small-scale structure in both the approximated magnetogram and the 3D distribution of the area expansion factors. We argue that the structuring of the expansion factor can be a significant ingredient in producing the observed structuring of the solar corona. However, due to the potential approximation used, these results may not be applicable to loops exhibiting twist neither to active regions producing significant flares.