E. F. Kaleta

Chlamydial infections in feral pigeons in Europe: Review of data and focus on public health implications.

Feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica), which thrive in most European towns and cities, are commonly infected with the zoonotic bacterium Chlamydophila psittaci, the agent of psittacosis (also known as ornithosis) in humans. A number of surveys carried out over the last thirty years across Europe have detected high seropositivity values and high percentages of infection in feral pigeon populations. Overall, when considering data from 11 European countries, seropositivity values to C. psittaci in the sampled populations ranged from 19.4% to 95.6%. In most surveys, the complement fixation test was used, and antibodies were detected in 19.4-66.3% of the samples, with a median of 46.1%. Indirect immunofluorescence and ELISA tests were employed less frequently, but led to the detection of higher percentages of seropositivity (23.7-67.7% and 35.9-95.6%, respectively). Attempts to grow C. psittaci in cell culture or embryonated chicken eggs were successful in 2-42.3% and 0-57.1% of samples, respectively, antigen detection methods were positive in 2.3-40% of samples, while conventional PCR and real-time PCR using different genomic targets detected the organism in 3.4-50% of samples. Twenty-five C. psittaci isolates from pigeons were typed as ompA genotype B (n=14), E (n=10) and E/B (n=1). The huge increase of feral pigeon populations in Europe is a major cause of concern for the detrimental effect of pigeon droppings on environmental hygiene, in addition to the extensive damage due to the fouling of buildings and monuments. The most important pathogenic organism transmissible from feral pigeons to humans is C. psittaci, with 101 cases of disease reported in the literature. Exposure to C. psittaci-contaminated dust, direct contact with pigeons through handling and, to a lesser extent, through pigeon feeding have been identified as hazardous exposures in more than half of the human cases, while loose or transient contacts with feral pigeons have been mentioned in about 40% of the cases. Education initiatives as to the communication of a health risk resulting from contact with pigeons and pigeon excreta should primarily be targeted at individuals who may be exposed to C. psittaci-contaminated dust, such as demolition/construction workers. Recommendations to this category of workers include wearing protective clothes with hoods, boots, gloves and air filter face masks when removing pigeon faeces from roofs, garrets and buildings, especially if working indoors. Monitoring for C. psittaci infections in these workers over time should also be considered. Children should be warned not to handle sick or dead pigeons, and immunocompromised individuals should be advised to carefully limit their contact to feral pigeons. Culling of pigeons by shooting or poisoning is both unethical and ineffective as the place of the killed birds in the population is quickly filled by new juveniles or immigrating birds from neighbouring areas. Pigeon-deterring systems, such as nets and plastic or metal spikes applied to buildings and monuments will prevent their fouling, and the administration of contraceptive drugs may allow size regulation of the pigeon populations. Nevertheless, the measure that will ultimately lead to permanent reduction and will establish healthy sustainable populations is the restriction of indiscriminate feeding by pigeon lovers. The erection of dovecotes and artificial breeding facilities should be considered for providing shelter and a balanced diet to the birds, as well as a chance of interaction for pigeon lovers in a hygienically controlled environment.

Sequencing of the Chlamydophila psittaci ompA gene reveals a new genotype, E/B, and the need for a rapid discriminatory genotyping method

ABSTRACT Twenty-one avian Chlamydophila psittaci isolates from different European countries were characterized using ompA restriction fragment length polymorphism, ompA sequencing, and major outer membrane protein serotyping. Results reveal the presence of a new genotype, E/B, in several European countries and stress the need for a discriminatory rapid genotyping method.

High resolution typing of Chlamydophila psittaci by multilocus VNTR analysis (MLVA)

A multilocus VNTR analysis (MLVA) system for detection of tandem repeats across the whole genome of Chlamydophila psittaci has been developed. Twenty selected genetic loci were initially tested on 9 avian reference strains including representatives of all major serotypes (A to F). Thereafter, 8 loci were retained for a more complete study performed on over 150 C. psittaci isolates from different bird species and geographical origins. Comparative analysis of the MLVA results and those obtained from currently available methods including serotyping and/or ompA sequencing indicate that the MLVA system provides an additional level of discrimination, with 20 distinct patterns identified to date. The newly developed MLVA system therefore provides a highly sensitive, high resolution test for the differentiation of C. psittaci isolates from different origins that is suitable for molecular epidemiological studies.

Do Canada geese (Branta canadensis Linnaeus, 1758) carry infectious agents for birds and man?

Currently, large groups of Canada geese (Branta canadensis Linnaeus, 1758) aggregate in recreational areas of north-western Germany. Questions have arisen as to whether these birds represent a special risk factor as a source of zoonotic agents for humans and as a source of viruses, causing notifiable or reportable diseases, for domestic poultry and waterfowl. To answer these questions, a total of 289 eggs were collected in 2002 and 2003 on a recreation site and assayed. Chlamydia psittaci was not isolated and neither was chlamydial antigen detected by polymerase chain reaction. All virus-isolation attempts were unsuccessful. Neither Salmonella spp. nor Campylobacter spp. was isolated from embryonic tissues, chorioallantoic membranes or yolk-sac membranes. The presence of antibodies against Newcastle disease virus and influenza A virus (haemagglutinin subtypes H5 and H7) was demonstrated in egg yolk. Antibodies were also detected against the egg-drop syndrome 1976 and duck plague viruses. It is concluded that further surveillance studies are needed for a reliable risk assessment.

Morphometric and allometric studies on eggshells and embryos of free-living Canada geese ( Branta c. canadensis Linnaeus, 1758)

A total of 289 eggs laid by free-living Canada geese (Branta canadensis canadensis Linnaeus, 1758) in the northwestern part of Germany were collected in spring 2002 and 2003 and examined for shell and embryo parameters. Mean egg mass was 160.88±19.68xa0g. Approximately 90% of all eggs had a mass between 140 and 185xa0g. About 90% of all clutches consisted of four to seven eggs. The form index of 90% of all eggs was in the range 62–74. The mean eggshell thickness on the blunt pole was 0.52±0.08 and 0.53±0.07xa0mm on the long axis. Embryo development follows a square function in the first half of development. Mean embryo length was correlated (P<0.01) with the mean body mass and shell thickness on the blunt pole and on the long axis of the eggs. No significant correlations were found between egg mass and form index and egg mass and shell thickness. Eggs with no visible fertilisation had a mean form index of 68.69±4.53 and fertile eggs had a mean form index of 68.50±3.73. Only 3 of 160 fertile eggs contained embryos with malformations of the beak, vertebral column, or leg. The question of regulating prevailing Canada goose populations is discussed.

Untersuchungen zum Gesundheitsstatus von Kanadagänsen (Branta canadensis, Linnaeus, 1758) in Nordrhein-Westfalen an Hand der Analyse von Eiern

Zusammenfassung107 Eier der Kanadagans aus Gelegen im Bereich des Naherholungsgebietes „Saaler Mühle“ in Nordrhein-Westfalen wurden morphometrisch, mikrobiologisch und serologisch untersucht. Untersucht wurde auf Erreger oder gegen diese gerichtete Antikörper von (i) Zoonosen (Salmonella sp.,Campylobacter sp.,Chlamydia sp.), (ii) die Erreger oder deren Antikörper von Tierseuchen (Virus der Newcastle Disease, Influenza A-Virus der Hämagglutinin (HA-)-Subtypen H5 und H7), (iii) Erreger oder deren Antikörper von bedeutenden Krankheiten des Wassergeflügels (Riemerella sp.,Pasteurella sp.,Escherichia coli, Schimmel- und Hefepilze, Paramyxovirus der Serotypen 4 und 6, Egg-Drop-Syndrome 1976, Entenpest-Herpesvirus).Aus Embryonen, Eihäuten und Dotter konnten kulturell keine Salmonellen isoliert werden. Mittels HELA-Zellkultur konnten keine Chlamydien nachgewiesen werden.Die Isolierung der Erreger von virusbedingten Tierseuchen (hier die Newcastle Disease und die klassische Geflügelpest) gelang nicht. Der Nachweis von Antikörpern gegen das Virus der Newcastle Disease gelang in Dotterproben von neun Eiern. Antikörper gegen das Influenza A-Virus des HA-Subtyps H5 wurden im Dotter aus einem Ei und Antikörper gegen das Influenza A-Virus des HA-Subtyps H7 wurden in zwei Eiern nachgewiesen.Der kulturelle Nachweis von Erregern bedeutender bakterieller Krankheiten des Wassergeflügels gelang hinsichtlichPasteurella sp. (ein Ei),Escherichia coli (ein Ei) undStaphylococcus sp. (23 Eier). Verschiedene Schimmelpilze wurden in sechs Eiern isoliert. Die Anzüchtung von Hefen gelang nicht. Aus einem Ei (Nr. 102) wurde ein Virus isoliert, das zur Gruppe der aviären Reoviren gehört. Antikörper gegen das Paramyxovirus des Serotyps 4 wurden nicht nachgewiesen. In vier Dotterproben befanden sich Antikörper gegen das Paramyxovirus des Serotyps 6. Antikörper gegen das Egg-Drop-Syndrom-1976-Virus befanden sich in 20 Dotterproben. Insgesamt 14 Dotterproben enthielten Antikörper gegen das Herpesvirus der Entenpest. Das Hepatitis-B-Virus der Gans konnte mittels PCR nicht nachgewiesen werden.Es konnten keine Erreger von Infektionskrankheiten nachgewiesen werden, die eine akute Gefährdung der Gesundheit von Menschen darstellen.Die nachgewiesenen Erreger/Antikörper von Geflügelseuchen und Krankheiten stellen eine potentielle Gefahr für das Hausgeflügel und für einige Arten frei lebender Wildvögel dar. Sorgfältige Beobachtungen der Kanadagans-Population und weitere Untersuchungen sind angezeigt.Summary107 eggs of Canada geese from clutches within the environs of the recreational area of “Saaler Mühle” in North Rhine-Westphalia were morphometrically, microbiologically, and serologically analyzed. Investigations for the following pathogens or their antibodies were conducted: (i) zoonoses (Salmonella sp.,Campylobacter sp.,Chlamydia sp.) (ii) the antibodies to or the pathogens causing epidemics (virus of Newcastle Disease, Influenza A-Virus of haemagglutinin (HA-)- Subtypes H5 and H7); (iii) pathogens or their antibodies of primary diseases of waterfowl (Riemerella sp.,Pasteurella sp.,Escherichia coli, mold and yeast fungi, Paramyxovirus for the Serotypes 4 and 6, Egg-Drop Syndrome 1976, and duck plague herpes virus.Salmonella could not be culturally isolated from embryos, egg yolks, and egg membranes. Neither could Chlamydia be verified using HELA cell cultures.The isolation of pathogens for virally caused animal epidemics (Newcastle Disease and Fowl Pest was unsuccessful. A proof of the presence of antibodies to Newcastle Disease could only be shown in samples of egg yolks from 9 eggs. Antibodies to the Influenza A-Virus of the HA-Subtype H5 could only be determined in the yolk of one egg, and antibodies against the Influenza A-Virus HA -Subtype H7 could only be verified from 2 eggs.The cultural isolation of pathogens causing primary bacterial diseases of waterfowl could only be verified forPasteurella sp. (one egg),Escherichia coli (one egg), andStaphylococcus sp. (23 eggs).Various molds were isolated from 6 eggs. The cultural propagation of yeasts was unsuccessful.From one egg (Nr. 102) a virus belonging to the group of avian reoviruses was isolated. Antibodies against the Paramyxovirus Serotype 4 could not be detected. In 4 egg yolk samples antibodies against the Paramyxovirus Serotype 6 were found. Antibodies against the Egg-Drop Syndrome-1976 Virus were found in 20 egg yolk samples. A total of 14 yolk samples contained antibodies against the herpes virus of duck plague. The Hepatitis B virus of geese could not be determined with PCR.No pathogenic agents causing infectious diseases harmful to people were found.The demonstrated pathogens/antibodies of waterfowl epidemics and diseases present a potential danger for domestic poultry as well as for a few other species of wild birds. Careful observation of the Canada geese population and further investigations are necessary.Résumé107 oeufs doies du Canada provenant de couvées situées à proximité de lespace récréatif de „Saaler Mühle“ en Rhénanie-Westphalie ont été examinés sur les plans morphométrique, microbiologique et sérologique. Ont été recherchés (i) les agents pathogènes ou leurs anticorps de zoonoses (Salmonella sp.,Campylobacter sp.,Clamydia sp.), (ii) les agents pathogènes ou leurs anticorps dépizooties (virus de la maladie de Newcastle, A-virus de la grippe des sous-types H5 et H7 de lHémaglutinine (HA)), (iii) les agents pathogènes ou leurs anticorps de maladies significatives de la sauvagine (Riemerella sp.,Pasteurella sp.,Escherchia coli, moisissures et levures, Paramyxovirus des sérotypes 4 et 6, syndromes doviposition 1976, virus herpes de la peste des anatidés.A partir de cultures dembryons, décaillés doeufs et de jaunes doeufs on ne put isoler des salmonelles. En faisant appel à des cultures HELA on ne put mettre en évidence aucune Chlamyde.Lisolement dagents pathogènes dépizooties virales (en loccurrence la maladie de Newcastle et la peste aviaire classique) na pas abouti. La présence danticorps contre le virus de la maladie de Newcastle fut vérifiée dans des échantillons de jaunes de neuf oeufs. La présence danticorps contre le virus A de la grippe du sous-type de lHA H5 a pu être vérifiée dans le jaune dun seul oeuf et celle danticorps contre le virus de la grippe du sous-type de lHA H7 a pu être vérifiée dans deux oeufs.La culture dagents pathogènes de maladies bactériennes significatives de la sauvagine put être vérifiéeen ce qui concernePasteurella sp. (1 oeuf),Eescherichia coli (1 oeuf) etStaphylococcus sp. (23 oeufs).Différentes moisissures ont été isolées dans 6 oeufs. La culture de levures échoua.A partir dun oeuf (Nℴ 102) un virus a été isolé relevant du groupe des réovires aviaires. Lexistence danticorps du Paramyxovirus de sérotype 4 na pu être vérifiée. Dans 4 échantillons de jaunes doeufs se trouvaient des anticorps contre le paramyxovirus de sérotype 6. Des anticorps contre le virus du syndrome doviposition 1976 ont été retrouvés dans 20 échantillons de jaunes doeufs. Au total, 14 échantillons de jaunes doeufs contenaient des anticorps contre le virus de lherpes de la peste des anatidés.On na pu détecter dagents pathogènes de maladies infectieuses qui puissent constituer un danger majeur pour la santé humaine.Les agents pathogènes et leurs anticorps dont la présence a été avérée constituent un danger potentiel pour la volaille domestique de même que pour quelques espèces de lavifaune sauvage. Des observations effectuées avec soin sur la population des oies du Canada de même que dautres recherches sont renseignées.

Investigation of the occurrence of infective agents among free-living gray geese (Anser anser Linné, 1758).

ZusammenfassungAus den Jahren 1994 bis 1999 wurden 185 wildlebende Graugänse auf Infektionserreger untersucht. Ein Drittel der Wildgänse wies Parasitenbefall auf (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species, Ascaridia species und Vertreter der FamilieHymenolepididae). Bakteriologisch wurden in unterschiedlichen AnteilenEnterobacteriaceae isoliert, jedoch keineSalmonella species. In zwei Fällen waren histopathologisch Mykobakterien festzustellen. Bei 13 von 53 Wildgänsen wurden Chlamydien nachgewiesen. Es wurde ein Reovirus-Isolat gefunden. Aus 268 Organen von 42 Wildgänsen (embryoniertes Hühnerei) und 811 Organen von 143 Wildgänsen (primäre Hühnerembryo-Leberzellkultur) blieb die Isolierung von Ortho- und Paramyxoviren aus. Serumantikörper wurden gegen verschiedene aviäre PMV-Serotypen gefunden. Auch gegen das Virus des Egg-Drop-Syndroms wurden Antikörper nachgewiesen, nicht aber gegen verschiedene Gänse-Adenoviren. Negativ verlief ein screening auf Antikörper gegen Reoviren und Orthomyxoviren.SummaryDuring the period 1994–1999 185 wild geese were investigated for infectious pathogens. One third of the wild geese showed parasitic infestations (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species,Hymenolepididae, Ascaridia species. Bacteriologically various proportions of Enterobacteriaceae were isolated however no Salmonella species. In two cases histopathological mycobacteria were determined. Chlamydia were found in 13 of 53 wild geese. A reo-virus isolate was also found. The isolation of ortho- and paramyxoviruses was negative for 268 organs from 42 wild geese (embryonic chicken eggs) and for 811 organs from 143 wild geese (primary chicken liver embryo culture). Serum antibodies against different avian PMV serotypes were found. Antibodies against the virus of Egg-Drop-Syndrome were also discovered, however, not against other adenoviruses. A screening for antibodies against reoviruses and orthomyxoviruses produced negative results.RésuméDe 1994 à 1999, 185 oies cendrées ont été examinées quant aux sources dinfection quelles contiennent. Un tiers des oies sauvages révéla une charge parasitaire (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species,Ascardia species et représentants de la Famille desHymenolepididae). Sur le plan bactériologique, des entérobactériacées ont été isolées en quantités variables mais sans révéler cependant la présence despèces de salmonelles. Dans deux cas, des mycobactéries ont pu être identifiées sur le plan histopathologique. Chez 13 des 53 oies sauvages, des chlamydies ont été mises en évidence. Un isolat de réovirus a été trouvé. De 268 organes prélevés sur 42 oies cendrées (œufs de poulet embryonnaires) et de 811 organes issus de 143 oies cendrées (culture de foie dembryons de poulet), lisolement dortho- et de paramyxovirus échoua. Des anticorps sériques contre différents sérotypes PMV aviaires ont été trouvés. De même, des anticorps ont été trouvés contre le virus de l»egg-drop-syndrome« mais pas contre différents adénovirus de loie. Le screening danticorps contre des réovirus et contre des orthomyxovirus donna un résultat négatif.

Untersuchungen zum Vorkommen von Infektionserregern bei freilebenden Graugänsen (Anser anserLinné, 1758)

ZusammenfassungAus den Jahren 1994 bis 1999 wurden 185 wildlebende Graugänse auf Infektionserreger untersucht. Ein Drittel der Wildgänse wies Parasitenbefall auf (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species, Ascaridia species und Vertreter der FamilieHymenolepididae). Bakteriologisch wurden in unterschiedlichen AnteilenEnterobacteriaceae isoliert, jedoch keineSalmonella species. In zwei Fällen waren histopathologisch Mykobakterien festzustellen. Bei 13 von 53 Wildgänsen wurden Chlamydien nachgewiesen. Es wurde ein Reovirus-Isolat gefunden. Aus 268 Organen von 42 Wildgänsen (embryoniertes Hühnerei) und 811 Organen von 143 Wildgänsen (primäre Hühnerembryo-Leberzellkultur) blieb die Isolierung von Ortho- und Paramyxoviren aus. Serumantikörper wurden gegen verschiedene aviäre PMV-Serotypen gefunden. Auch gegen das Virus des Egg-Drop-Syndroms wurden Antikörper nachgewiesen, nicht aber gegen verschiedene Gänse-Adenoviren. Negativ verlief ein screening auf Antikörper gegen Reoviren und Orthomyxoviren.SummaryDuring the period 1994–1999 185 wild geese were investigated for infectious pathogens. One third of the wild geese showed parasitic infestations (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species,Hymenolepididae, Ascaridia species. Bacteriologically various proportions of Enterobacteriaceae were isolated however no Salmonella species. In two cases histopathological mycobacteria were determined. Chlamydia were found in 13 of 53 wild geese. A reo-virus isolate was also found. The isolation of ortho- and paramyxoviruses was negative for 268 organs from 42 wild geese (embryonic chicken eggs) and for 811 organs from 143 wild geese (primary chicken liver embryo culture). Serum antibodies against different avian PMV serotypes were found. Antibodies against the virus of Egg-Drop-Syndrome were also discovered, however, not against other adenoviruses. A screening for antibodies against reoviruses and orthomyxoviruses produced negative results.RésuméDe 1994 à 1999, 185 oies cendrées ont été examinées quant aux sources dinfection quelles contiennent. Un tiers des oies sauvages révéla une charge parasitaire (Amidostomum anseris, Eimeria species,Ascardia species et représentants de la Famille desHymenolepididae). Sur le plan bactériologique, des entérobactériacées ont été isolées en quantités variables mais sans révéler cependant la présence despèces de salmonelles. Dans deux cas, des mycobactéries ont pu être identifiées sur le plan histopathologique. Chez 13 des 53 oies sauvages, des chlamydies ont été mises en évidence. Un isolat de réovirus a été trouvé. De 268 organes prélevés sur 42 oies cendrées (œufs de poulet embryonnaires) et de 811 organes issus de 143 oies cendrées (culture de foie dembryons de poulet), lisolement dortho- et de paramyxovirus échoua. Des anticorps sériques contre différents sérotypes PMV aviaires ont été trouvés. De même, des anticorps ont été trouvés contre le virus de l»egg-drop-syndrome« mais pas contre différents adénovirus de loie. Le screening danticorps contre des réovirus et contre des orthomyxovirus donna un résultat négatif.