E. Kennedy

Choice of indicators for food security and nutrition monitoring

Abstract Traditional indicators of food and nutrition security such as calorie adequacy and anthropometric indicators have been found difficult to incorporate into ongoing monitoring and evaluation systems. This paper develops a conceptual framework to identify and evaluate alternative indicators of food and nutrition security. The results of the empirical analysis of four different data sets show that relatively simple indicators perform well in locating the food and nutrition insecure. The paper makes several suggestions for the choice of indicators for food security and nutrition monitoring in Africa.

Are pre‐schoolers from female‐headed households less malnourished? A comparative analysis of results from Ghana and Kenya

This article compares household income level and pre‐schooler weight‐for‐age across household groupings that are differentiated by female headship variables which are reflective of the heterogeneity of female‐headed households. Data from Kenya indicate that it is the interaction of income and female headship at low‐income levels which promotes pre‐schooler nutritional status. For Ghana, incomes have to be quite large (in the upper tercile of the distribution) before a reduction in the childs likelihood of having a low weight‐for‐age is achieved through further income increases. We argue that an absence of complementary child health inputs is more likely for households in the Ghana sample, and that in this type of environment, differences in nurturing patterns, as proxied by headship status, will have a muted impact on child nutrition.

Does it matter how we survey demand for food?: Evidence from Kenya and the Philippines

Abstract This article examines the reliability of food quantity information collected from expenditure surveys, and finds that measurement errors will very often be systematically correlated with income, such that the response of food intakes to increases in income is seriously overstated. This may be, firstly, because food quantities are not measured independently of income if total expenditures are the proxy used for income, and secondly, because food transfers in the form of guest and hired worker meals are under-recorded. These biases are illustrated using household surveys from Kenya and the Philippines.

Shift to non-traditional grains in the diets of East and West Africa: role of women's opportunity cost of time

Abstract In sub-Saharan Africa there has been a shift over the past 20 years in consumption patterns from traditional coarse grains to non-traditional grains, mainly wheat and rice. This article examines the aggregate level trends in production and consumption of coarse grains and non-traditional grains. Household level data sets from urban and rural Burkina Faso and from Southwestern Kenya are used to identify the determinants of shifting consumption patterns. Results from the two countries suggest that the shift to rice in urban Burkina Faso and wheat in the form of bread in rural Kenya is related to the extent of women working outside the home. Results also suggest that women level factors are more important than household income alone in explaining the transition in consumption patterns.

Health and nutrition effects of cash crop production in developing countries: A comparative analysis

The paper presents results of a comparative analysis of the health and nutritional effects of cash crop production in 6 countries--The Gambia, Guatemala, Kenya, Malawi, the Philippines, and Rwanda. The 6 country case studies were conducted during the same time period and used a similar, although not identical, research protocol. Participation in cash crop schemes resulted in increases in household income. Short-term increases in household income did not result in a decrease in the incidence of illness in preschool-aged children nor in the total time that preschoolers were ill. Increases in household income did result in increases in the preschoolers energy consumption; however, the income/calorie consumption links, although significant, were weak. The household income gains did not have an immediate or large impact on preschooler nutritional status. While, in the longer term, increases in income may bring about improvements in preschooler health, in the short term, it appears that increases in income must be accompanied by improvements in the health environment in order to have a significant effect in reducing preschooler morbidity and improving child nutritional status.

Food security and nutrition monitoring systems in Africa: A review of country experiences and lessons learned

Abstract This paper describes the food security and nutrition monitoring systems which are being operated in countries of sub-Saharan Africa. The paper looks at the evolution of such information systems as well as what purposes they serve. Operational aspects are also covered including types of data used, sources and data analysis. A major lesson learned in this review is that more effort needs to go into evaluating past efforts in food and nutrition monitoring since the impact of these systems on decision making appears weak. To improve the utility of these systems for decision making more attention needs to be given to defining the uses and users of food security and nutrition monitoring systems from the onset, in addition to identifying the factors within the political economy of a country which may affect the way in which decisions are made on food security and nutrition issues.

The commercialization of agriculture and household-level food security: The case of Southwestern Kenya

Abstract Results from a 1984/1985 study in South Nyanza, Kenya to evaluate the effects of shifting from maize to sugarcane production on household-level food security are presented. Household food security is not jeopardized by the entry into commercial agriculture. The area allocated to subsistence food production is similar for sugar- and non-sugar-producing households. Incomes of sugarcane producers are significantly higher than non-cane producers and a portion of this incremental income is used to increase household caloric intake. The conventional “wisdom” that the transition to commercial agriculture causes a deterioration in household-level food security is not borne out by the results from the present study.

Commercialization of smallholder agriculture: Policy requirements for the malnourished poor

Abstract The nutritional impact of increased commercialization of smallholder agriculture in developing countries, while generally positive, may in certain circumstances be unfavourable. Adverse policies tend to be the problem in these circum stances. The International Food Policy Research Institute has conducted re search to identify the key factors in this process, and in March 1989 conducted a workshop in Guatemala for researchers and policy makers. This report summarizes the findings and policy recommendations that emerged.

Food security and nutrition, 1971-91: Lessons learned and future priorities

Abstract This is an edited version of testimony given by the authors before the US House of Representatives Select Committee on Hunger, 16 October 1991. They offer rules of thumb for achieving food security and nutrition goals, and emphasize that greater attention should be given to understanding the impact of policies on womens food security and nutrition. In addition, it is necessary to broaden the concept of food and nutrition security to offer greater protection to vulnerable households.

The impact of drought on production, consumption and nutrition in southwestern Kenya

In this paper I compare the effects of the 1984 drought on agricultural production, income, food consumption, and nutrition of farm and non-farm households in South Nyanza District, Kenya. Survey work covered the period 1984 to 1987. It was the late arrival of the long rains in spring 1984, rather than an absolute shortfall in rain, that caused most of the fluctuations in agricultural production. Agricultural households who were least affected by the drought were able to cope by increasing the amount of cultivated land and by relying more on coarse grain production. Coping strategies for the landless households in South Nyanza were more limited and this group of households therefore experienced greater fluctuations in income between the drought and non-drought periods than did most types of agricultural households. Surprisingly, changes in food consumption between the drought and non-drought periods were small for most households. In spite of differences in production, food availability and incomes, however, the health and nutritional status of pre-school-aged children was not significantly different in the two time periods. Differences in health and nutritional status appear to be influenced more by community-level health and sanitation factors than by differences in agricultural production and incomes in drought and non-drought years.