E. Michael Thurman

PARASITE (RIBEIROIA ONDATRAE) INFECTION LINKED TO AMPHIBIAN MALFORMATIONS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

Parasites and pathogens can influence the survivorship, behavior, and very structure of their host species. For example, experimental studies have shown that trematode parasites can cause high frequencies of severe limb malformations in amphibians. In a broad-scale field survey covering parts of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana, we examined relationships between the frequency and types of morphological abnormalities in amphibians and the abundance of trematode parasite infection, pH, con- centrations of 61 pesticides, and levels of orthophosphate and total nitrate. We recorded severe malformations at frequencies ranging from 1% to 90% in nine amphibian species from 53 aquatic systems. Infection of larvae by the trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae was associated with, and functionally related to, higher frequencies of amphibian limb malfor- mations than found in uninfected populations (#5%). Parasites were concentrated around the basal tissue of hind limbs in infected anurans, and malformations associated with infection included skin webbings, supernumerary limbs and digits, and missing or mal- formed hind limbs. In the absence of Ribeiroia, amphibian populations exhibited low (0- 5%) frequencies of abnormalities involving missing digits or distal portions of a hind limb. Species were affected differentially by the parasite, and Ambystoma macrodactylum , Hyla regilla, Rana aurora, R. luteiventris, and Taricha torosa typically exhibited the highest frequencies of abnormalities. None of the water-quality variables measured was associated with malformed amphibians, but aquatic snail hosts (Planorbella spp.) were significant predictors of the presence and abundance of Ribeiroia infection. Morphological comparisons of adult specimens of Ribeiroia collected from different sites and raised in experimental definitive hosts suggested that all samples represented the same species— R. ondatrae. These field results, coupled with experimental research on the effects of Ribeiroia on amphibians, demonstrate that Ribeiroia infection is an important and widespread cause of amphibian limb malformations in the western United States. The relevance of trematode infection to declines of amphibian populations and the influence of habitat modification on the pathology and life cycle of Ribeiroia are emphasized as areas requiring further research.

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY OF AQUATIC HUMIC SUBSTANCES IN THOREAU'S BOG, CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS'

Thoreaus Bog is an ombrotrophic floating-mat Sphagnum bog developed in a glacial kettlehole and surrounded by a red maple swamp. Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon in the porewater of the bog average 36 mg/L and are greatest near the surface, especially during late summer. This distribution suggests that the upper layer of living and dead Sphagnum and moderately humified peat is the major site of dissolved organic material production in the bog. The dissolved organic material consists mainly of aquatic fulvic acid (67%) and hydrophilic acids (20%); these organic acids control the pH (typically 4 or somewhat lower) of the bogwater. The elemental, amino acid, carbo- hydrate, and carboxylic acid contents of fulvic acid from the bog are similar to those of aquatic fulvic acid from the nearby Shawsheen River, although the phenolic hydroxyl content of fulvic acid from Thoreaus Bog is higher. The hydrophilic acids have greater amino acid, carbohydrate, and carboxylic acid contents than the fulvic acid, consistent with the hypothesis that hydrophilic acids are more labile intermediate compounds in the formation of fulvic acid.

measuring stream discharge by non‐contact methods: A Proof‐of‐Concept Experiment

This report describes an experiment to make a completely non-contact open-channel discharge measurement. A van-mounted, pulsed doppler (10GHz) radar collected surface-velocity data across the 183-m wide Skagit River, Washington at a USGS streamgaging station using Bragg scattering from short waves produced by turbulent boils on the surface of the river. Surface velocities were converted to mean velocities for 25 sub-sections by assuming a normal open-channel velocity profile (surface velocity times 0.85). Channel cross-sectional area was measured using a 100 MHz ground-penetrating radar antenna suspended from a cableway car over the river. Seven acoustic doppler current profiler discharge measurements and a conventional current-meter discharge measurement were also made. Three non-contact discharge measurements completed in about a 1-hour period were within 1% of the gaging station rating curve discharge values. With further refinements, it is thought that open-channel flow can be measured reliably by non-contact methods.

Geochemical heterogeneity in a sand and gravel aquifer: Effect of sediment mineralogy and particle size on the sorption of chlorobenzenes

The effect of particle size, mineralogy and sediment organic carbon (SOC) on sorption of tetrachlorobenzene and pentachlorobenzene was evaluated using batch-isotherm experiments on sediment particle-size and mineralogical fractions from a sand and gravel aquifer, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Concentration of SOC and sorption of chlorobenzenes increase with decreasing particle size. For a given particle size, the magnetic fraction has a higher SOC content and sorption capacity than the bulk or non-magnetic fractions. Sorption appears to be controlled by the magnetic minerals, which comprise only 5–25% of the bulk sediment. Although SOC content of the bulk sediment is <0.1%, the observed sorption of chlorobenzenes is consistent with a partition mechanism and is adequately predicted by models relating sorption to the octanol/water partition coefficient of the solute and SOC content. A conceptual model based on preferential association of dissolved organic matter with positively-charged mineral surfaces is proposed to describe micro-scale, intergranular variability in sorption properties of the aquifer sediments.

Liquid chromatography/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC/TOF/MS) for the analysis of emerging contaminants

In this review, we focus on the importance of unequivocally detecting emerging contaminants, as well as establishing their presence in the environment by accurate mass spectrometric measurement techniques. The environmental issue of emerging contaminants is tied to the analysis of wastewater samples using the new analytical methods of the last decade, especially liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) and time-of-flight mass spectrometric (TOF/MS) techniques. Because of the high complexity of some environmental samples (i.e. wastewater and sludge samples), high-resolving power techniques are needed to provide additional structural information. Thus, this paper focuses on LC/TOF/MS to analyze unknowns in the aquatic environment. Emerging contaminants are defined as compounds that are not currently covered by existing regulations of water quality, that have not been previously studied, and that are thought to be a possible threat to environmental health and safety. In particular, these compounds include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, surfactants, and pesticide degradates. Unique types of structural information for these compounds are derived from TOF/MS and quadrupole (Q)-TOF/MS instruments for the analysis of emerging contaminants in water and sediments. This review explains the unique features of these instruments and gives examples of their applications.

Complexation of copper by aquatic humic substances from different environments

The copper-complexing properties of aquatic humic substances isolated from eighteen different environments were characterized by potentiometric titration, using a cupric ion selective electrode. Potentiometric data were analyzed using FITEQL, a computer program for the determination of chemical equilibrium constants from experimental data. All the aquatic humic substances could be modelled as having two types of Cu(II)-binding sites: one with K equal to about 106 and a concentration of 1.0 ± 0.4 × 10−6 M(mg C)−1 and another with K equal to about 108 and a concentration of 2.6 ± 1.6 × 10−7 M(mg C)−1. A method is described for estimating the Cu(II)-binding sites associated with dissolved humic substances in natural water based on a measurement of dissolved organic carbon, which may be helpful in evaluating chemical processes controlling speciation of Cu and bioavailability of Cu to aquatic organisms.

Analysis of 100 pharmaceuticals and their degradates in water samples by liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

A straightforward methodology for the chromatographic separation and accurate mass identification of 100 pharmaceuticals including some of their degradation products was developed using liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/Q-TOF-MS). A table compiling the protonated or deprotonated exact masses for all compounds, as well as the exact mass of several fragment ions obtained by MS-MS is included. Excellent chromatographic separation was achieved by using 3.5 μm particle size columns and a slow and generic 30-min gradient. Isobaric and isomeric compounds (same nominal mass and same exact mass, respectively) were distinguished by various methods, including chromatography separation, MS-MS fragmentation, and isotopic signal identification. Method reporting limits of detection ranged from 1 to 1000 ng/L, after solid-phase extraction of 100mL aqueous samples. The methodology was successfully applied to the analysis of surface water impacted by wastewater effluent by identifying many of the pharmaceuticals and metabolites included in the list. Examples are given for some of the most unusual findings in environmental samples. This paper is meant to serve as a guide for those doing analysis of pharmaceuticals in environmental samples, by providing exact mass measurements of several well known, as well as newly identified and environmentally relevant pharmaceuticals in water samples.

Analysis of 70 Environmental Protection Agency priority pharmaceuticals in water by EPA Method 1694.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method 1694 for the determination of pharmaceuticals in water recently brought a new challenge for treatment utilities, where pharmaceuticals have been reported in the drinking water of 41-million Americans. This proposed methodology, designed to address this important issue, consists of solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) using triple quadrupole. Under the guidelines of Method 1694, a multi-residue method was developed, validated, and applied to wastewater, surface water and drinking water samples for the analysis of 70 pharmaceuticals. Four distinct chromatographic gradients and LC conditions were used according to the polarity and extraction of the different pharmaceuticals. Positive and negative ion electrospray were used with two MRM transitions (a quantifier and a qualifier ion for each compound), which adds extra confirmation not included in the original Method 1694. Finally, we verify, for the first time, EPA Method 1694 on water samples collected in several locations in Colorado, where positive identifications for several pharmaceuticals were found. This study is a valuable indicator of the potential of LC/MS-MS for routine quantitative multi-residue analysis of pharmaceuticals in drinking water and wastewater samples and will make monitoring studies much easier to develop for water utilities across the US, who are currently seeking guidance on analytical methods for pharmaceuticals in their water supplies.

Analysis of sucralose and other sweeteners in water and beverage samples by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

A methodology for the chromatographic separation and analysis of three of the most popular artificial sweeteners (aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose) in water and beverage samples was developed using liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOF-MS). The sweeteners were extracted from water samples using solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges. Furthermore, several beverages were analyzed by a rapid and simple method without SPE, and the presence of the sweeteners was confirmed by accurate mass measurements below 2-ppm error. The unambiguous confirmation of the compounds was based on accurate mass measurements of the protonated molecules [M+H](+), their sodium adducts and their main fragment ions. Quantitation was carried out using matrix-matched standard calibration and linearity of response over 2 orders of magnitude was demonstrated (r>0.99). A detailed fragmentation study for sucralose was carried out by time-of-flight and a characteristic spectrum fingerprint pattern was obtained for the presence of this compound in water samples. Finally, the analysis of several wastewater, surface water and groundwater samples from the US showed that sucralose can be found in the aquatic environment at concentrations up to 2.4microg/L, thus providing a good indication of wastewater input from beverage sources.

Widespread occurrence of neuro-active pharmaceuticals and metabolites in 24 Minnesota rivers and wastewaters.

Concentrations of 17 neuro-active pharmaceuticals and their major metabolites (bupropion, hydroxy-bupropion, erythro-hydrobupropion, threo-hydrobupropion, carbamazepine, 10,11,-dihydro-10,11,-dihydroxycarbamazepine, 10-hydroxy-carbamazepine, citalopram, N-desmethyl-citalopram, fluoxetine, norfluoxetine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, 2-N-glucuronide-lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, venlafaxine and O-desmethyl-venlafaxine), were measured in treated wastewater and receiving surface waters from 24 locations across Minnesota, USA. The analysis of upstream and downstream sampling sites indicated that the wastewater treatment plants were the major source of the neuro-active pharmaceuticals and associated metabolites in surface waters of Minnesota. Concentrations of parent compound and the associated metabolite varied substantially between treatment plants (concentrations±standard deviation of the parent compound relative to its major metabolite) as illustrated by the following examples; bupropion and hydrobupropion 700±1000 ng L(-1), 2100±1700 ng L(-1), carbamazepine and 10-hydroxy-carbamazepine 480±380 ng L(-1), 360±400 ng L(-1), venlafaxine and O-desmethyl-venlafaxine 1400±1300 ng L(-1), 1800±2300 ng L(-1). Metabolites of the neuro-active compounds were commonly found at higher or comparable concentrations to the parent compounds in wastewater effluent and the receiving surface water. Neuro-active pharmaceuticals and associated metabolites were detected only sporadically in samples upstream from the effluent outfall. Metabolite to parent ratios were used to evaluate transformation, and we determined that ratios in wastewater were much lower than those reported in urine, indicating that the metabolites are relatively more labile than the parent compounds in the treatment plants and in receiving waters. The widespread occurrence of neuro-active pharmaceuticals and metabolites in Minnesota effluents and surface waters indicate that this is likely a global environmental issue, and further understanding of the environmental fate and impacts of these compounds is warranted.