Ed Baines

Toward a social pedagogy of classroom group work

Abstract In any classroom, pupils will be drawn together for many purposes and we can refer to such within classroom contexts as ‘groupings’. The teacher often creates these, and the way that they are set up, and how they are used for particular learning purposes. If the relationships between grouping size, interaction type and learning tasks in groups are planned strategically then learning experiences will be more effective. However, research suggests that the relationships between these elements are often unplanned and the ‘social pedagogic’ potential of classroom learning is therefore unrealised. In this paper we explore the notion of social pedagogy in relation to group work. It is argued that research and theory relevant to group work in classrooms is limited, and that a new approach, sensitive to group work under everyday classroom conditions is required. This paper identifies key features of a social pedagogy of classroom group work, which can inform effective group work in classrooms. It also describes the background to a current large scale UK project which has been set up to design with teachers a programme of high quality group work in classrooms at both primary and secondary phases.

Changes in grouping practices over primary and secondary school

The research detailed in this paper provides a systematic description and analysis of grouping practices in primary and secondary schools in England. Practices are compared to main findings in developmental and educational literature with regard to effective contexts for learning and recent ideas about pedagogy. The research is based on an analysis of 4924 groupings from 672 Reception, Year 2 and Year 5 classes in 331 primary schools and 248 Year 7 and Year 10 classes in 47 secondary schools. The data came from ‘classroom mapping questionnaires’ that were completed by teachers at a particular point in the school day. Completed questionnaires provided information about the nature and use of groupings within their classrooms and focused on the number and size of groupings, type of working interaction between pupils, the presence of adults, grouping composition and the type of task that groupings were engaged with. Results showed that there were changes in grouping practices with pupil age. As pupils got older they were increasingly likely to experience whole class ability based sets (tracking) for core curriculum subjects and more formal row/ pair seating arrangements. Grouping size for learning decreased as pupils got older. Primary school age children were most likely to work on individual work either alone or with the support of an adult. Extra adult support in classes reduced as pupils got older. Secondary school age pupils were more likely to engage in peer interaction than primary age children. Grouping by ability was common at all age levels. As children got older, classroom tasks were more likely to involve the application of existing knowledge and less likely involve practising skills. At the secondary school level, there were indications that teachers co-ordinated grouping size, working interaction type and learning task. These findings indicate that beyond early primary age the main adjustments to pupil grouping with pupil age are in response to the reduced amount of additional adult support. Changing grouping practices are aimed at maintaining control and on-task attention and maximising individual and teacher directed learning but also, in secondary classrooms only, offering pupils opportunities for peer interaction.

The effect of a new approach to group work on pupil-pupil and teacher-pupil interactions.

The main impetus for the SPRinG (social pedagogic research into grouping) project was to address the wide gap between the potential of group work and its limited use in schools. It is an ambitious project that developed key principles and strategies to improve the effectiveness of group work in everyday primary classes and across a whole school year. On-the-spot and video-based systematic observations showed more active, sustained engagement, more connectedness, and more higher order inferential joint reasoning within SPRinG groups than in control comparisons. The authors argue that group work can be successfully implemented into everyday school classrooms and improve pupil interactions, provided teachers take time to train pupils in the skills of group working.

A Short-term Longitudinal Study of Children’s Playground Games Across the First Year of School: Implications for Social Competence and Adjustment to School

This longitudinal study describes playground games of children progressing across their first year of schooling. Boys, in comparison with girls, played more games, especially chase and ball games, and played a greater variety of games. Also, the variety of boys’ games increased across the school year. Girls played more verbal games than boys. The study found that facility with games forecast boys’ social competence and both boys’ and girls’ adjustment to first grade. Children’s groups remained ethnically segregated across the school year. Results are discussed in terms of the role of games as an important developmental task during middle childhood.

Improving pupil group work interaction and dialogue in primary classrooms: results from a year‐long intervention study

Findings are reported from a year‐long evaluation of the effectiveness of the SPRinG programme relative to a control group. SPRinG aimed to address the wide gap between the potential of group interaction to promote learning and its limited use in schools. The project involved working with teachers to develop strategies for enhancing pupil group work and dialogue, and to implement a pupil relational and group skills training programme. Video observations were conducted of a sub‐sample of pupil groups (31 SPRinG; 29 control groups) working on a specially designed group decision‐making activity undertaken in everyday classroom settings. SPRinG groups displayed higher levels of participation, engagement, active and sustained discussion, high level inferential joint reasoning and lower levels of group disruptive blocking behaviours. We argue that group work can be successfully implemented into everyday school classrooms, and improve pupil interactions and high level discussion, provided teachers take time to train pupils in relational and group working skills.

School lunch and learning behaviour in primary schools: an intervention study

Background/Objectives:In addition to the nutritional benefits of healthier school food, anecdotes describe improvements in childrens behaviour and educational outcomes when school food or the school dining room environment is improved. This study hypothesized that a school food and dining room intervention would improve pupils’ learning-related classroom behaviour.Subjects/Methods:A controlled intervention trial involving six primary schools matched in triplets and randomly assigned to a 12-week intervention (promotion of healthier school food at lunchtime and changes in the school dining environment) or 12-week wait-listed control group. Study outcome was learning-related behaviours measured in a random sample of 146 pupils in years 3–5.Results:On-task and off-task behaviours were observed and used as proxy measures for concentration and disengagement (disruption), respectively. Teacher–pupil on-task engagement was 3.4 times more likely in the intervention schools compared with the control schools (adjusted model odds ratio (OR)=3.40 (95% confidence interval (CI)=1.56, 7.36), P=0.009). However, on-task pupil–pupil behaviour was less likely in the intervention group (adjusted model OR=0.45 (95% CI=0.28, 0.70), P<0.001). Similarly, off-task pupil–pupil behaviour was more likely in the intervention group than in the control group in both the unadjusted model (OR=2.18 (95% CI=1.52, 3.13), P<0.001) and the adjusted model (OR=2.28 (95% CI=1.25, 4.17), P=0.007).Conclusions:This study offers some support for the hypothesis that a school food and dining room intervention can have a positive impact on pupils’ alertness. However, if raised alertness is not channelled and supervised, it may result in increased off-task behaviour when pupils are working together.

Discourse topic management and discussion skills in middle childhood: The effects of age and task:

Discourse topic management and discussion skills are central for intersubjectivity, learning and education, yet there is little understanding of how such skills develop.The reported research comprises two studies, which examined the skills of discourse topic maintenance, shading and hierarchicalization during middle childhood. Each study compared the performances of same-age and same-sex dyads of 4, 6 and 9 years of age (Study 1: 28 dyads; Study 2: 43 dyads) across two tasks. Overall, topic maintenance varied according to age and task. Study 1 found that task structure constrained the interactions of older children while supporting those of younger children. Older children, but not 4-year-olds maintained topics through collaborative discussion. Study 2 examined these differences further by comparing performance on similar tasks but where one required collaborative discussion for successful completion. Results showed that young children use justifications but not counter-arguments and suggestions, and do not collaborate in discussion. Development in discourse topic management and collaborative discussion skills is linked to an increasing ability to engage in mutually active dialogue, and to adapt to, connect with and comment on alternative perspectives, as well as to functional changes in the use of justifications during dialogue.

Teachers’ Experiences of Implementing the SPRinG Programme in Schools

The chapter complements the previous chapters in that it draws upon the reflections of teachers who have worked with SPRinG; moving from theory to practice as well as adding classroom insights associated with implementing SPRinG principles in classrooms. Chapter 7 describes the process of implementing and working with the SPRinG programme in authentic KS2 classrooms. As such, the aims and content of the chapter make this different in style from the preceding chapters (4–6). 21 SPRinG teachers from 7 schools provided interview and other material concerning the programme for at least one year. Teachers spoke about their experiences of participating as a whole school effort and how fitting the intervention into the day-to-day curriculum of their classrooms. Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed: Teachers prepared their classrooms for SPRinG by creating, stable mixed groups for learning, ensuring that children could communicate effectively with their group partners and including children with special needs and emotional problems within groups. Lessons and curriculum subjects were prepared to facilitate group working, especially allowing children to be included via briefing and debriefing, and ensuring that the distribution of learning resources allowed for group interaction. The role of the teacher received special consideration, with those teachers most committed to the SPRinG programme reflecting on the change in their roles over the school year—from being a knowing ‘sage’ to being a ‘guide’ who listened and supported group working. Correspondingly, children were described as becoming less teacher-dependent and showing much greater capabilities in structuring, supporting and maintaining learning within their own groups. Teachers further commented that the relational approach was seen as fundamental to the establishment of effective group working in their classrooms and that this approach was likely to be most effective when started at the beginning of the school year. Two important features of effective group working in classrooms were identified. First, where there was active support from school senior management whole school support and collegial support, SPRinG was associated with more positive reports of effective implementation. Second, ownership and implementation of the SPRinG principles varied between teachers; those who were less committed were described as ‘SPRinGLite’ and their classroom effects appeared less positive. Teachers’ experiences reinforced the overall success of the SPRinG programme but also provided insights into the challenges and hard won successes that they and their pupils had encountered along the way.

The Significance of Context for the Emergence and Implementation of Research Evidence: The Case of Collaborative Problem-Solving.

Abstract One of the fundamental purposes of educational research is to provide evidence to facilitate effective practice. However, the evidence itself does not have much value for practitioners unless key information about the context from which the evidence was generated is also provided. In this paper, we use the word ‘context’ to refer to factors that are relevant for learning, including the interactions that learners experience with multiple people, artefacts, and environments. Unfortunately, in many educational research studies, either these factors do not get the required attention or information about them is presented in an incoherent structure. The resultant lack of information leads to two significant drawbacks. First, it creates confusion among practitioners who want to apply research evidence in their practice. Second, it leads to research studies that on the face of it are similar, but that in reality have resulted from evidence that has been collected in significantly different contexts being included under the same categories in reviews, meta-reviews, and best-evidence syntheses. In this paper, we draw on the concept of ‘relatability’ of evidence and present taxonomy for collaborative problem-solving (CPS) that can be used to provide the valuable information against which research evidence can be indexed. By addressing the need for more detailed information about the contextual factors from which the evidence is generated to bridge the gap between research and practice in CPS research, we aim to exemplify the approach that is needed in educational research more generally.

The perceived benefits and difficulties in introducing and maintaining supervision groups in a SEMH special school

Abstract Supervision groups are often used in professional settings and are introduced to address and provide support in relation to the challenges that arise in everyday practice. Although group supervision is common amongst a range of helping professions, its use in schools is rare. Little research exists as to the merits and challenges of providing school staff with a confidential space in which to discuss and reflect upon their practice alongside colleagues. This research took place in a social, emotional and mental health (SEMH) special school, a highly pressured context, where staff work with pupils with SEMH special needs, and the challenging behaviours they display. This study involved 12 school staff and examined the perceived benefits and difficulties of introducing and maintaining effective group supervision. Data were gathered through semi-structured, one-to-one interviews. Transcripts were subsequently analysed thematically using qualitative data analysis software. Findings indicated that attending group supervision provided participants with the opportunity to foster a greater sense of camaraderie with their colleagues, and address the issue of stress through the offloading, sharing and validating of emotions and experiences. Although few difficulties were reported, important factors to consider are the need to ensure sessions are chaired by an effective, independent supervisor. Ensuring all supervisees are given a voice within a group appears to be an essential part of the supervisor’s role. Establishing a method of evaluating group supervision as a means of maintaining its effectiveness is also explored.