Eduard G. Reinhardt

Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans

American Beauty Modern Native American ancestry traces back to an East Asian migration across Beringia. However, some Native American skeletons from the late Pleistocene show phenotypic characteristics more similar to other, more geographically distant, human populations. Chatters et al. (p. 750) describe a skeleton with a Paleoamerican phenotype from the eastern Yucatan, dating to approximately 12 to 13 thousand years ago, with a relatively common extant Native American mitochondrial DNA haplotype. The Paleoamerican phenotype may thus have evolved independently among Native American populations. The differences between Paleoamericans and Native Americans likely resulted from local evolution. Because of differences in craniofacial morphology and dentition between the earliest American skeletons and modern Native Americans, separate origins have been postulated for them, despite genetic evidence to the contrary. We describe a near-complete human skeleton with an intact cranium and preserved DNA found with extinct fauna in a submerged cave on Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. This skeleton dates to between 13,000 and 12,000 calendar years ago and has Paleoamerican craniofacial characteristics and a Beringian-derived mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup (D1). Thus, the differences between Paleoamericans and Native Americans probably resulted from in situ evolution rather than separate ancestry.

The tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the destruction of Herod the Great's harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel

Underwater geoarchaeological excavations on the shallow shelf (∼10 m depth) at Caesarea, Israel, have documented a tsunami that struck and damaged the ancient harbor at Caesarea. Talmudic sources record a tsunami that struck on 13 December A.D. 115, impacting Caesarea and Yavne. The tsunami was probably triggered by an earthquake that destroyed Antioch, and was generated somewhere on the Cyprian Arc fault system. The tsunami deposit consisted of an ∼0.5-m-thick bed of reverse-graded shells, coarse sand, pebbles, and pottery deposited over a large area outside of the harbor. The lower portion of the deposit was composed of angular shell fragments, and the upper portion of whole convex-up Glycymeris spp. shells. The sequence records tsunami downcutting (∼1 m) into shelf sands, with the return flow sorting and depositing angular shell fragments followed by oriented whole shells. Radiocarbon dating of articulated Glycymeris shells, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates, constrain the age of the deposit to between the first century B.C. and the second century A.D., and point to the tsunami of A.D. 115 as the most likely candidate for the event, and the probable cause of the harbor destruction.

Identifying tsunami deposits using bivalve shell taphonomy

On 28 November 1945, in the Makran trench off Pakistan, a large earthquake (8.1 Mw) produced a tsunami that struck the coast of Oman and left a taphonomically distinct shell bed in Sur Lagoon. The shell bed was thick (5–25 cm) and laterally extensive, covering a >1 km2 area. The shell assemblage from the deposit contained a mean of 59% for articulated bivalves of allochthonous offshore and subtidal species (e.g., Tellina palatam ) as well as a mean of 20% for lagoonal species, indicating large-scale erosion and transport. Taphonomic traits (e.g., articulation, rounding, fragment angularity) of all bivalve material >5.6 mm were quantified for eight sample horizons, and compared with a tsunamite from Caesarea, Israel. Some of the taphonomic characteristics between the shell beds from these two different depositional settings were similar, and three tsunamigenic specific traits were identified: (1) thickness and lateral extent of the shell deposit, (2) presence of allochthonous articulated bivalves out of life position, and (3) extensive angular fragmentation. These results show that tsunamis form shell accumulations and cannot be ignored when assessing shell bed origin for the geological record. When these three traits are collectively found, a tsunamigenic origin should be considered for the shell bed.

Arcellaceans as pollution indicators in mine tailing contaminated lakes near Cobalt, Ontario, Canada

Six assemblages resulting from Q-mode cluster analysis of 27 arcellacean taxa in thirty-nine sediment-water interface samples collected from two small lakes heavily polluted by mine tailings near the town of Cobalt, northeastern Ontario, Canada, correlated well with various distinct polluted and remediated environments. Results of R-mode cluster analysis indicated that arcellacean strains within the same species often discriminate between environments, thus utilization of infraspecific categories increases resolution when studying lake microenvironments, pollutants, and rates of lake remediation. Results of this study suggest that successful lake remediation in these and similarly polluted lakes is best achieved by leaving the tailings undisturbed to be buried naturally, or to speed the process by addition of an allochthonous sediment cap. INTRODUCTION Arcellaceans (thecamoebians) are freshwater protozoans that form agglutinated tests. They occur abundantly in Holocene lacustrine sediments (Medioli and Scott 1983; Scott and Medioli 1983) and have been successfully used to reconstruct Pleistocene-Holocene lacustrine paleoenvironments (Patterson et al. 1985; McCarthy et al. 1995). Most previous investigations have been of a reconnaissance nature and primarily concerned with the determination of occurrences, and ranges in different environments (Patterson et al. 1996). However, recent research of lakes in Canada and Italy has demonstrated the use of arcellaceans as an excellent indicator of pollution levels (Collins et al. 1990; Asioli et al. 1996; Patterson et al. 1996). For example, Patterson et al. (1996) have demonstrated the relationship between the distribution of arcellacean faunal assemblages and heavy metal pollutants (arsenic and mercury) in tailings in northeastern Ontario lakes. In addition, Asioli et al. (1996) have also conducted similar studies in Italy on acidic lakes polluted with copper and ammonium sulphates. These studies indicate that different arcellacean species appear to be influenced by the metal pollutants from mine tailings and they may indicate certain environmental parameters. Although ecological stresses on various arcellacean species have not been investigated thoroughly, some have been shown under laboratory conditions to vary in their gross morphology (strain) when under environmental duress (Medioli et al. 1987). Asioli et al. (1996) confirmed these laboratory results in the field when they recognized distinct morphotypic variations within three species of arcellaceans to characterize distinct paleoenvironments. As a result of these studies, the importance of investigating the distribution of strains of different arcellacean species was realized. Cobalt, Ontario is a prime example of an area heavily contaminated by tailings and waste by-products of silver mining (Patterson et al. 1996). In 1911, when silver mining in Cobalt was at highest levels of production, annual silver production exceeded 850 metric tons per year which easily made Cobalt Camp, as it was then known, the worlds largest producer of the metal (Murphy 1977). An unfortunate legacy of this exploration is the millions of tons of mine waste and tailings that were dumped into nearby lakes and streams which, in addition to being detrimental to the surrounding environment, pose a great residual health risk to the 10,000 current residents of the Cobalt area. Most problematic is the arsenic associated with the silver ore, which ended up in the tailings, and the mercury and cyanide used in the ore milling process (Dumaresq 1993). We have observed several distinctive strains within the arcellacean populations of Crosswise and Peterson lakes (text-figure 1). These strains have developed in response to different environmental stresses and stimuli, such as the presence of chemical pollutants in the substrate and low oxygen levels. These morphotypic, or infraspecific, names are not considered valid under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) and thus we use them in an informal sense. To avoid confusion where possible we have derived our morphotypic names from published literature. In most cases, what we consider strains of the same species have been described at various times as separate species. The purpose of this research is to increase our understanding of arcellaceans as environmental and pollution indicators by correlating these morphotypes with the geochemical environment (affected by mine tailings), bathymetry, organic content, and bottom sediment type (Table 1).

Tsunami waves generated by the Santorini eruption reached Eastern Mediterranean shores

A sedimentary deposit on the continental shelf off Caesarea Maritima, Israel, is identified, dated, and attributed to tsunami waves produced during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1630–1550 B.C.E.) eruption of Santorini, Greece. The sheet-like deposit was found as a layer as much as 40 cm thick in four cores collected from 10 to 20 m water depths. Particle-size distribution, planar bedding, shell taphoecoensis, dating (radiocarbon, optically stimulated luminescence, and pottery), and comparison of the horizon to more recent tsunamigenic layers distinguish it from normal storm and typical marine conditions across a wide (>1 km 2 ) lateral area. The presence of this deposit is evidence that tsunami waves from the Santorini eruption radiated throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, affecting the coastal people living there. Dates for the tsunami deposit bracket both the so-called “high” and “low” chronology for the Santorini eruption. In addition to resolving the question of the extent of tsunami impact from the Santorini eruption, the research presented also provides a new means of discovering, identifying, and studying continuous records of paleotsunami deposits in the upper shelf coastal environment. The latter is key to understanding past events, better interpreting sedimentological records, and creating stronger models for understanding tsunami propagation, coastal management, and hazard preparation worldwide.

Destruction of Herod the Great's harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel—Geoarchaeological evidence

Geoarchaeological analysis of ancient harbor deposits has answered questions regarding the timing and extent of the destruction of the harbor at Caesarea Maritima built by Herod the Great on Israels Mediterranean coast. By using stratigraphic, micropaleontological (foraminifera), and geochemical (Sr isotopes) analyses of the ancient harbor deposits we can establish a late first to early second century A.D. date for the destruction of the harbor. This destruction occurred earlier, was more rapid and widespread than previously proposed, and was probably caused by seismic activity. The new excavations also indicate that during the fourth to early sixth centuries A.D., geomorphological processes and siltation within the inner harbor allowed this area to be used in a limited capacity as a harbor.

Strontium isotopic-paleontological method as a high-resolution paleosalinity tool for lagoonal environments

A combined strontium isotopic ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) and paleontological method is newly applied to a modern lagoon in Egypt’s Nile River delta to test its applicability as a paleosalinity proxy. Analyses of 22 surficial samples collected throughout the lagoon include 81 Sr isotopic analyses of mollusks, foraminifera, ostracods, barnacles, bryozoans, serpulid worm tubes, pore water, and gypsum crystals. Two salinity groups are distinguished in each sample: a lower salinity group (~1 ppt) mixed with a higher salinity group (~3‐10 ppt) that, respectively, are interpreted as the modern biocoenosis and an older relict fauna. The relict fauna denotes higher salinity conditions in the lagoon prior to closure of the Aswan High Dam (1964), and the modern fauna records freshening of the lagoon. Recent decreased salinity is a response to regulated Nile River flow and increased discharge into Manzala of fresh water via canals and drains. Quantification of this short-term salinity change holds promise for study of modern lagoons in other world settings, and may provide paleoclimatic information for older lagoon sequences in the Nile River delta and the geologic record.

ISOTOPIC (Sr, O, C) INDICATORS OF SALINITY AND TAPHONOMY IN MARGINAL MARINE SYSTEMS

Ten sediment samples from the Crocodile River (Nahal Tanninim), Israel, were analyzed for their foraminiferal abundance and four samples were selected for O, C and Sr isotopic analysis to examine salinity and taphonomic trends. Two biofacies were documented: a Ammonia tepida (59±20% (1σ)) and a Pararotalia spinigera (75±17% (1σ)) dominated assemblage. The distribution of δ 18 O, δ 13 C and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values within shell material (foraminifera, ostracods, mollusks, algae) documented salinity trends within the open-ended, micro-tidal estuary with greater certainty than paleontological analysis alone. The isotopic data allowed the isolation of taphonomic trends by determining which taxa were transported from their original context. The calculated salinities from the four samples from the Crocodile River had a distribution that was bimodal with the two groups fitting into a marine or very brackish salinity regime. Most of the taxa followed this trend with measured salinities from the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values in the shell material indicating a relatively stable salinity of 30‰. The mixture of specimens in the death assemblage from such diverse salinity regimes indicated transport both landward and seaward in the estuary. This methodology shows promise as an environmental indicator in brackish systems when replicate sampling and the analysis of live specimens cannot be undertaken.

Differential diagenesis of sedimentary components and the implication for strontium isotope analysis of carbonate rocks

Geochemical analyses of various components foraminifera, coccoliths and siliciclastic fractions of limestone and marl . samples from the marine Trubi Formation Early Pliocene of southern Italy revealed subtle diagenetic contamination. The coccolith fraction is altered from its original value both in its trace element Sr rCa, MgrCa, FerCa, MnrCa, NarCa all

Evidence for rapid avian-mediated foraminiferal colonization of Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba, during the Holocene Hypsithermal

A Holocene ecological succession was documented using palynological, foraminiferal, and molluscan faunas sampled from an excavated trench on the margin of Bell River Bay, Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba. The palynological data record the known gradually isostatically-induced shift from aquatic to terrestrial conditions at the site, and clearly delineates the Holocene Hypsithermal maximal warm interval (commencing here about 5500 years BP). Concurrent with this warming the site became occupied by the extinct salt tolerant gastropod Marstonia gelida and the marine foraminifer Cribroelphidium gunteri by at least 5430 years BP. Water fowl-assisted colonization of non-marine habitats by foraminifera has previously been suggested as a dispersal mechanism for other non-marine foraminiferal occurrences. However, as this relatively warm-water foraminifer (presently found as far north as Cape Cod, MA on the Atlantic USA coast, and Vancouver, BC on the Canadian Pacific coast but also found in Canadian Maritime provinces during the Hypsithermal) did not inhabit the area either prior to or following the Hypsithermal warm interval, this occurrence indicates the efficiency with which foraminifera can utilize non-selective avian transport to colonize new non-marine and marine habitats. It may be that only a few years were required for colonization of the site to occur (2000–3000 km distant from native populations); this suggests that avian transport is a much more important foraminiferal dispersal mechanism than previously realized. The appearance of foraminifera at this site may also constrain models designed to determine the time required for hydraulically injected glacial freshwater to be flushed from normally brine producing aquifers in the region.