Eduard Gregorio

Six-channel polychromator design and implementation for the UPC elastic/Raman LIDAR

A 6-channel dichroic-based polychromator is presented as the spectrally selective unit for the U.P.C. elastic/Raman lidar. Light emission is made at 355-nm (ultraviolet, UV), 532-nm (visible, VIS) and 1064-nm (near infrared, NIR) wavelengths. In reception, the polychromator is the spectral separation unit that separates the laser backscattered composite return into 3 elastic (355, 532, 1064-nm wavelengths) and 3 Raman channels (386.7, 607.4 and 407.5-nm (water-vapor) wavelengths). The polychromator houses photo-multiplier tubes (PMT) for all the channels except for the NIR one, which is avalanche photodiode (APD) based. The optomechanical design uses 1-inch optics and Eurorack standards. The APD-based receiver uses a XY-axis translation/elevation micro-positioning stage due to its comparatively small active area and motorised neutral density filters are used in all PMT-based channels to avoid detector saturation. The design has been specially optimized to provide homogeneous spatial light distribution onto the photodetectors and good mechanical repeatability. All channels are acquired in mixed analog and photon-counting mode using Licel® transient recorders, which are controlled by means of a user friendly LabVIEWTM interface. The paper focuses on the main polychromator optical design parameters, that is, light collimation trade-offs, end-to-end transmissivity, net channel responsivity, light distribution and spot size onto the photodetectors. The polychromator along with the rest of the U.P.C. lidar system has successfully been tested during a recent lidar system intercomparison campaign carried out in Madrid (Spain) during Oct. 2010.

Kinect v2 Sensor-Based Mobile Terrestrial Laser Scanner for Agricultural Outdoor Applications

Mobile terrestrial laser scanners (MTLS), based on light detection and ranging sensors, are used worldwide in agricultural applications. MTLS are applied to characterize the geometry and the structure of plants and crops for technical and scientific purposes. Although MTLS exhibit outstanding performance, their high cost is still a drawback for most agricultural applications. This paper presents a low-cost alternative to MTLS based on the combination of a Kinect v2 depth sensor and a real time kinematic global navigation satellite system (GNSS) with extended color information capability. The theoretical foundations of this system are exposed along with some experimental results illustrating their performance and limitations. This study is focused on open-field agricultural applications, although most conclusions can also be extrapolated to similar outdoor uses. The developed Kinect-based MTLS system allows to select different acquisition frequencies and fields of view (FOV), from one to 512 vertical slices. The authors conclude that the better performance is obtained when a FOV of a single slice is used, but at the price of a very low measuring speed. With that particular configuration, plants, crops, and objects are reproduced accurately. Future efforts will be directed to increase the scanning efficiency by improving both the hardware and software components and to make it feasible using both partial and full FOV.

Parameter design of a biaxial lidar ceilometer

This paper presents parameter design methodology and related optomechanical engineering of a 905-nm diode-laser biaxial, eye-safe lidar ceilometer prototype for cloud-height monitoring. Starting with a brief review of the state-of-the-art ceilometer technology, acceptable parameter ranges are identified for the key system parts. Parameter tuning is achieved by imposing goal criteria on the simulated signal-to-noise ratio and laser-telescope overlap factor. The system is based on a low-cost pulsed semiconductor laser, low-cost Fresnel-lens telescope, a low-noise-equivalent power avalanche-photodiode optoelectronic receiver, and collimating/focusing adjustable parts. Finally, preliminary test measurements are presented.

Backscatter Error Bounds for the Elastic Lidar Two-Component Inversion Algorithm

Total backscatter-coefficient inversion error bounds for the two-component lidar inversion algorithm (so-called Fernalds or Klett-Fernald-Sasanos method) are derived in analytical form in response to the following three error sources: 1) the measurement noise; 2) the user uncertainty in the backscatter-coefficient calibration; and 3) the aerosol extinction-to-backscatter ratio. The following two different types of error bounds are presented: 1) approximate error bounds using first-order error propagation and 2) exact error bounds using a total-increment method. Both error bounds are formulated in explicit analytical form, which is of advantage for practical physical sensitivity analysis and computational implementation. A Monte Carlo approach is used to validate the error bounds at 355-, 532-, and 1064-nm wavelengths.

Design methodology of a ceilometer lidar prototype

This article presents step-by-step applied methodology to design a 905-nm 5-kHz rep. rate diode-laser biaxial lidar ceilometer prototype beginning from the definition of initial specs, and related trade-offs to the first measurement tests. It is shown how key variables such as the received and background power, the range-dependent signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the integration time, and the overlap factor have been simulated and analysed by means of parameter tuning inside acceptable state-of-the-art goal intervals. Main emission and reception subsystems as well as some auxiliary mechanical subsystems (adjustment parts and protection/subjection) are discussed. Finally, preliminary test measurements on topographic targets and storm clouds carried out with the ceilometer prototype are presented. Future improvements and trade-offs are also discussed.

Airborne spray drift measurement using passive collectors and lidar Systems

Minimization of the risk associated with spray applications requires a proper understanding of the spray drift phenomenon. This fact has led to the development of several techniques to measure the deposition on horizontal surfaces as well as the airborne spray profiles. Assessment of airborne spray drift is particularly difficult because this phenomenon is subject to variable micrometeorological conditions. However the monitoring of airborne drift has a great importance since it can be carried over long distances. This paper reviews main sampling techniques currently used to asses the airborne spray drift, based on passive collectors and tracers. Theoretical principles that determine the efficiency of passive samplers are studied as well as the performance of different types of tracers. On the other hand, this paper shows new airborne spray drift assessment techniques based on lidar technology, reviewing its principle of operation as well as its practical application in several spray drift trials. It is concluded that the lidar technique has significant advantages over conventional methods, especially in terms of time consumption and monitoring capabilities. However, the future adoption of lidar technology for airborne spray drift studies will be subjected to the development of lidar instruments really adapted to this application.

905-nm biaxial lidar ceilometer prototype

A 905-nm 5-kHz rep. rate diode-laser biaxial lidar ceilometer (cloud-height monitoring) prototype is presented. The prototype uses a low-cost Fresnel lens and a low-NEP avalanche photodiode (APD) opto-electronic receiver. The article presents the opto-mechanical engineering of both the system and main subsystems involved as well as the system energy link-budget. The reception subsystem is based on a low-cost Fresnel-lens telescope and collimating and focusing adjustable parts, which include a rectangular slit diaphragm to minimise background radiance. Equivalent focal length, background radiance rejection gain, confusion circle and imaged spot characteristics onto the photodiode surface are also formulated and discussed by means of a geometrical optics approach. The emission subsystem uses a beam expander to ensure eye-safety (maximum exposure levels) and ad-hoc mechanics to provide enough degrees of freedom for emission-reception overlap factor (OVF) adjustment. At this point, an overview of future alternative mechanical solutions for enhanced pointing accuracy and trade-offs among different laser diode-based solutions is presented. This part is complemented with OVF simulations of the prototype designed. Finally, preliminary test measurements at our premises in North Campus (UPC) are introduced as raw and rangecorrected processed signals.

Measurement of Spray Drift with a Specifically Designed Lidar System.

Field measurements of spray drift are usually carried out by passive collectors and tracers. However, these methods are labour- and time-intensive and only provide point- and time-integrated measurements. Unlike these methods, the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique allows real-time measurements, obtaining information with temporal and spatial resolution. Recently, the authors have developed the first eye-safe lidar system specifically designed for spray drift monitoring. This prototype is based on a 1534 nm erbium-doped glass laser and an 80 mm diameter telescope, has scanning capability, and is easily transportable. This paper presents the results of the first experimental campaign carried out with this instrument. High coefficients of determination (R2 > 0.85) were observed by comparing lidar measurements of the spray drift with those obtained by horizontal collectors. Furthermore, the lidar system allowed an assessment of the drift reduction potential (DRP) when comparing low-drift nozzles with standard ones, resulting in a DRP of 57% (preliminary result) for the tested nozzles. The lidar system was also used for monitoring the evolution of the spray flux over the canopy and to generate 2-D images of these plumes. The developed instrument is an advantageous alternative to passive collectors and opens the possibility of new methods for field measurement of spray drift.

Perspective of remote optical measurement techniques (ROMTs)

This article presents an intercomparison between four different ROMTs: differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS). The main focus is on the TDLAS technique, where the main laser-diode typologies and modulation schemes, namely, wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) and frequency modulation spectroscopy (FMS), are reviewed. At present, new promising modulation schemes with range resolution capability are being investigated. Among them, analog frequency modulation (FM) and digital pseudo-random schemes are discussed.

Polarization lidar detection of agricultural aerosol emissions

Agricultural aerosol emissions can significantly impact human and animal health as well as the environment. Therefore, it is essential to adopt new sensing techniques for real-time monitoring these emissions in high temporal and spatial resolution. In recent years, light detection and ranging (lidar) technology has been used for measuring the particulate matter emitted from agricultural operations. However, conventional nonpolarized lidar systems cannot discriminate between different types of aerosols, which can lead to misinterpretation of the results. To overcome this limitation, this study applies the polarization lidar technique to monitor agricultural aerosols. A 355 nm polarization lidar system was used to measure the emissions generated during pesticide spraying operations. The results showed that depolarization ratios due to field dust (0.220–0.268) and to road dust (0.385) are clearly higher than those caused by pesticide spray drift (0.028–0.043) or by diesel exhaust (0.099), which can be used to differentiate each type of aerosol. These results support the development of new polarization lidar systems specifically designed to study the impact of agricultural activities on air quality.