Eduardo Schnitzler

Clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock: 2007 update from the American College of Critical Care Medicine

Background:The Institute of Medicine calls for the use of clinical guidelines and practice parameters to promote “best practices” and to improve patient outcomes. Objective:2007 update of the 2002 American College of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Guidelines for Hemodynamic Support of Neonates and Children with Septic Shock. Participants:Society of Critical Care Medicine members with special interest in neonatal and pediatric septic shock were identified from general solicitation at the Society of Critical Care Medicine Educational and Scientific Symposia (2001–2006). Methods:The Pubmed/MEDLINE literature database (1966–2006) was searched using the keywords and phrases: sepsis, septicemia, septic shock, endotoxemia, persistent pulmonary hypertension, nitric oxide, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), and American College of Critical Care Medicine guidelines. Best practice centers that reported best outcomes were identified and their practices examined as models of care. Using a modified Delphi method, 30 experts graded new literature. Over 30 additional experts then reviewed the updated recommendations. The document was subsequently modified until there was greater than 90% expert consensus. Results:The 2002 guidelines were widely disseminated, translated into Spanish and Portuguese, and incorporated into Society of Critical Care Medicine and AHA sanctioned recommendations. Centers that implemented the 2002 guidelines reported best practice outcomes (hospital mortality 1%–3% in previously healthy, and 7%–10% in chronically ill children). Early use of 2002 guidelines was associated with improved outcome in the community hospital emergency department (number needed to treat = 3.3) and tertiary pediatric intensive care setting (number needed to treat = 3.6); every hour that went by without guideline adherence was associated with a 1.4-fold increased mortality risk. The updated 2007 guidelines continue to recognize an increased likelihood that children with septic shock, compared with adults, require 1) proportionally larger quantities of fluid, 2) inotrope and vasodilator therapies, 3) hydrocortisone for absolute adrenal insufficiency, and 4) ECMO for refractory shock. The major new recommendation in the 2007 update is earlier use of inotrope support through peripheral access until central access is attained. Conclusion:The 2007 update continues to emphasize early use of age-specific therapies to attain time-sensitive goals, specifically recommending 1) first hour fluid resuscitation and inotrope therapy directed to goals of threshold heart rates, normal blood pressure, and capillary refill ≤2 secs, and 2) subsequent intensive care unit hemodynamic support directed to goals of central venous oxygen saturation >70% and cardiac index 3.3–6.0 L/min/m2.

Dying in the intensive care unit: collaborative multicenter study about forgoing life-sustaining treatment in Argentine pediatric intensive care units.

Objective Describe modes of death and factors involved in decision-making together with life support limitation (LSL) procedures. Design Prospective, descriptive, longitudinal, and noninterventional study. Setting Sixteen pediatric intensive care units in Argentina. Patients Every patient who died during a 1-yr period was included. Measurements and Main Results Age, sex, length of stay (LOS), primary and admission diagnosis, underlying chronic disease (CD), postoperative condition (PO). Deaths were classified in four groups: a) failed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR); b) do-not-resuscitate (DNR) status; c) withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment (WH/WD); and d) brain death (BD). Justifications were classified as a) imminent death; b) poor long-term prognosis; c) poor quality of life; and d) family request. Data were collected from medical records and interviews with the attending physicians. Descriptive statistics were performed. Differences among groups were analyzed through contingency tables and analysis of variance when required. Relative risks and confidence intervals of variables potentially related to LSL were analyzed, and logistic regression was performed. There were 6358 admissions and 457 deaths. CPR was performed in 52%, DNR in 16%, WH/WD in 20%, and BD in 11% of dead patients. BD patients were older, LOS and CD prevalence were higher in the WH/WD group. Inotropic drugs were the most frequently limited treatment in 110 patients (55%), CPR in 72 (35.6%), and mechanical ventilation in 63 (31%). Imminent death was the most frequently reported justification for LSL. CD and more staff were associated with a higher probability of LSL. Conclusions Most of the patients in Argentina underwent CPR before their death. We have a high proportion of patients with CD (65%) and low BD diagnosis. PO condition decreased LSL probability in chronically ill patients. Do-not-resuscitate orders and withholding new treatments were the most common LSL. Active withdrawal was exceptional. The Ethics Committee was consulted in 5% of the LSL population.

Jugular venous oxygen saturation or arteriovenous difference of lactate content and outcome in children with severe traumatic brain injury.

Objective To assess the association between neurologic outcome and the alterations of jugular venous oxygen saturation (Sjvo2) or the increase in arteriovenous difference of lactate content (AVDL) in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Design Observational prospective cohort study. Setting Multidisciplinary pediatric intensive care unit of a university hospital. Patients A total of 27 pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury, with a Glasgow Coma Scale after resuscitation of <9, who were admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit within 36 hrs after injury. Interventions Intermittent measurement of Sjvo2 and AVDL. Measurements and Main Results Sjvo2 and AVDL were assessed simultaneously every 6 hrs. The primary dependent variable measured was assessed independently 3 months after trauma according to the Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category. Patients were classified into two groups: group 1 (favorable outcome, Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category 1–3) and group 2 (unfavorable outcome, Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category 4–6); 81% were included in group 1 and 19% in group 2. A total of 354 measurements of Sjvo2 and AVDL were made, with a mean of 13.1 ± 7.9 per patient. The number of abnormal measurements of Sjvo2 and increased AVDL used to predict the neurologic outcome was selected according to the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. Mortality was 15% (four patients). The strongest association was found between a poor neurologic outcome and two or more pathologic AVDL measurements (higher than −0.37 mmol/L; relative risk, 17.6; 95% confidence interval, 2.5–112.5;p = .001). The presence of two or more measurements of Sjvo2 of ≤55% was significantly associated with a poor neurologic outcome (relative risk, 6.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.5–29.7;p = .003). The frequency of measurements of Sjvo2 of ≥75% was not different between groups 1 and 2. Conclusion In children with severe traumatic brain injury, two or more measurements of Sjvo2 of ≤55% or two or more pathologic AVDL measurements were associated with a poor neurologic outcome. Further studies are needed to recommend the use of these variables as a guideline to optimize treatment.

American College of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Practice Parameters for Hemodynamic Support of Pediatric and Neonatal Septic Shock

Objectives: The American College of Critical Care Medicine provided 2002 and 2007 guidelines for hemodynamic support of newborn and pediatric septic shock. Provide the 2014 update of the 2007 American College of Critical Care Medicine “Clinical Guidelines for Hemodynamic Support of Neonates and Children with Septic Shock.” Design: Society of Critical Care Medicine members were identified from general solicitation at Society of Critical Care Medicine Educational and Scientific Symposia (2006–2014). The PubMed/Medline/Embase literature (2006–14) was searched by the Society of Critical Care Medicine librarian using the keywords: sepsis, septicemia, septic shock, endotoxemia, persistent pulmonary hypertension, nitric oxide, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and American College of Critical Care Medicine guidelines in the newborn and pediatric age groups. Measurements and Main Results: The 2002 and 2007 guidelines were widely disseminated, translated into Spanish and Portuguese, and incorporated into Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Heart Association/Pediatric Advanced Life Support sanctioned recommendations. The review of new literature highlights two tertiary pediatric centers that implemented quality improvement initiatives to improve early septic shock recognition and first-hour compliance to these guidelines. Improved compliance reduced hospital mortality from 4% to 2%. Analysis of Global Sepsis Initiative data in resource rich developed and developing nations further showed improved hospital mortality with compliance to first-hour and stabilization guideline recommendations. Conclusions: The major new recommendation in the 2014 update is consideration of institution—specific use of 1) a “recognition bundle” containing a trigger tool for rapid identification of patients with septic shock, 2) a “resuscitation and stabilization bundle” to help adherence to best practice principles, and 3) a “performance bundle” to identify and overcome perceived barriers to the pursuit of best practice principles.

High mortality in patients with influenza A ph1n1 2009 admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit: A predictive model of mortality*

Objective: To describe the clinical characteristics and outcome of patients admitted to pediatric intensive care with influenza A (pH1N1) 2009 in Argentina. Design: Retrospective observational study. Setting: Thirteen pediatric intensive care units in Argentina. Subjects: One hundred and forty-two patients with confirmed or suspected influenza A (H1N1). Interventions: None. Measurements and Main Results: We included 142 critically ill patients. The median age was 19 months (range, 2–110 months) with 39% of the patients <24 months of age. Ninety-nine patients (70%) had an underlying disease. Influenza A (pH1N1) 2009 infection was confirmed in 90 patients and the remaining 52 had a positive direct immunofluorescence assay for influenza A. The median length of stay in the pediatric intensive care unit was 12 days (range, 2–52 days). One hundred eighteen patients (83%) received invasive mechanical ventilation and 19 patients were treated with noninvasive ventilation; however, seven of the patients receiving noninvasive ventilation later needed mechanical ventilation. Sixty-eight patients died (47%) with the most frequent cause refractory hypoxemia. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that age <24 months (odds ratio, 2.87; 2.35–3.93), asthma (odds ratio, 1.34; 1.20–2.91), and respiratory coinfection with respiratory syncytial virus (odds ratio, 2.92; 1.20–4.10) were associated with higher mortality. As expected, mechanical ventilation and treatment with inotropes were also associated with increased mortality. Conclusions: The mortality of children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit with 2009 pH1N1 influenza was high (47%) in our population. Age <24 months, asthma, respiratory coinfection, need of mechanical ventilation, and treatment with inotropes were predictors of poorer outcome.

The value of gastric intramucosal pH in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery in pediatric patients.

Objective: To examine the usefulness of gastric intramucosal pH (pHi) to predict adverse events during the postoperative period after cardiac surgery in pediatric patients. Design: Prospective, observational clinical study. Setting: Multidisciplinary pediatric intensive care unit, university hospital. Patients: A total of 70 patients who had elective cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass; mean age, 4.0 yrs. Interventions: Gastric tonometry. Measurements and Main Results: In all cases, the pHi was determined within the first 2 hrs and again within the first 12 hrs of the postoperative period after cardiac surgery. The following adverse events were considered: mortality, multiple organ failure (MOF), and infectious complications. Patients were divided into three groups: Group A, patients having the two pHi measurements ≤7.32 (n = 15); Group B, patients having the two pHi determinations >7.32 (n = 28); and Group C, patients having one pHi determination ≤7.32 and the other >7.32 (n = 27). Of the total sample, 5 (7.1%) patients died; 4 (5.7%) had MOF, and 13 (18.5%) had infectious complications. When the rate of adverse events was analyzed in the three groups, significant differences were found in mortality (p < .035) and MOF (p < .029). This was not the case for infectious complications (p = .071). In Group A, three patients died and three had MOF. The standardized chi‐square values were 1.87 and 2.31 respectively, causing the authors to consider that this group accounted for the differences found in the global analysis. Conclusions: Two pHi determinations ≤7.32, one at admission and one at 12 hrs of the postoperative period after cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass, were associated with a higher rate of mortality and MOF, but not with a higher rate of infectious complications. It is not yet possible to recommend the use of this finding as a treatment objective to guide hemodynamic optimization in this group of patients.

Adequate agreement between venous oxygen saturation in right atrium and pulmonary artery in critically ill children.

Objective: To determine the agreement between venous oxygen saturation in right atrium (Srao2) and pulmonary artery (Svo2) in critically ill pediatric patients. Design: Retrospective, observational study. Setting: Multidisciplinary pediatric intensive care unit from a general university hospital. Patients: Thirty critically ill children in whom a pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) was inserted for catecholamine refractory shock (septic and cardiogenic, n = 18) and postoperative management (liver and cardiac transplant, n = 12). Measurements and Main Results: Ninety measurements of Srao2 and Svo2 were obtained after placement of PAC and every 6 hrs for the first 12 hrs of pediatric intensive care unit admission. The agreement between Srao2 and Svo2 was determined through Bland and Altman methodology, concordance correlation coefficient, and the frequency of differences between Srao2 and Svo2. The frequency of differences between both saturations was evaluated in three categories: ±1%–5%, ±6%–9%, and higher than ±10%. The first category was the threshold to consider both variables interchangeable. Changes of Srao2 related to clinically significant (>5%) increases and drops of Svo2 were analyzed. Srao2 and Svo2 were not significantly different: median (interquartile range) 83% (75%–86%) and 81% (75%–85%), respectively (p = 0.23). The frequency of differences between Srao2 and Svo2 was ±1%–5%, 71 (79%); ±6%–9%, 14 (15.5%); and higher than ±10%, 5 (5.5%). Bland and Altman analysis showed a 2% bias with a 95% limits of agreement of −6.9% to 10.9%. The concordance correlation coefficient was 0.90. Svo2 increased in 11/90 measurements and Srao2 followed it 82% of the times. Svo2 decreased in 7/90 measurements and Srao2 followed it 100% of the times. Conclusion: The concordance analysis performed allows to conclude that there is an appropriate agreement between Svo2 and Srao2. This finding may become clinically relevant considering the difficulties associated to the use of PAC in children.

Near drowning in a pediatric population: epidemiology and prognosis

INTRODUCTION Submersion injury is associated with high morbidity and mortality, being the third leading cause of accidental death among children. OBJECTIVES To analyze and describe risk factors, prognosis, and survival of victims, admitted to a third level Community Teaching Hospital. Population, material and methods. A retrospective, observational, analytical study. We studied patients admitted to the pediatric critical care unit, between 06/2000 and 01/2008. The following variables were analyzed: age, sex, length of stay, days of mechanical ventilation, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, apnea, bradycardia; baseline, 24 and 48 h lactacidemia, submersion time, swimming pool watchers of the victims. Stata 8.0 software was used; continuous variables were analyzed using Wilcoxon test; for categorical variables Z test and Chi square test were used, and a logistic regression analysis was performed. RESULTS 30 near-drowning victims were admitted, median age was 25 months (R = 11-144 months). 41.3% occurred during summer, 60% were under parental supervision. Sibling supervision was associated with an increased risk of near-drowning (RR: 2.1; 95% CI 1.1-3.2). Immersion time was > 10 minutes in 3.4%; 26% had apnea, and the GCS score was < 5 in 19.99%. Lactic acid at admission was > 3 mmol/l in 10 patients. Risk factors like glucose level > or = 300 mg% (OR: 3.325), apnea (OR: 2.752), bradycardia (OR: 4.74), GCS <5 (OR: 3.550) and inmersion time > 10 minutes (OR: 5.12), were associated with poor prognosis. Mortality was 2/30 patients. CONCLUSION In our population, the presence of apnea, bradycardia, GCS <5, glucose level > or = 300 mg%, submersion time > 10 minutes, and lactic acid > 6 mmol/l at admission and the first 24 h, were associated with a poor prognosis and serious injury.

Pediatric intensive care in Argentina.

8.2% of the gross domestic product is spent annually on health care in Argentina, a country of 32 million people. There is 1 medical doctor of every 147,000 beds in a total 3180 hospitals. The infant mortality rate in Argentina is 24.5/1000 live births which is high compared to developed countries. Perinatal causes and congenital anomalies are the main cause of death after the neonatal period, and accidents, cardiac disease, and respiratory tract infections are the main causes of death among children over age 1 year. Argentina has approximately 35 pediatric intensive care units (ICU), but 154 of 244 beds are within or near the capital. Only 2 hospitals have pediatric intensive care fellowship programs, so full time dedicated staff is rare. 250 registered pediatricians dedicated to intensive care are in the Argentine Pediatric Society and the nurse/bed ratio is 1:2-1:3. Moreover, the country has neither postanesthesia recuperation units, burn units, chronic ventilation units, nor approved home assistance programs, and intermediate care is not clearly standardized. These inadequacies have led to a shortage of beds and the caring for of critically ill children in general pediatric or emergency wards in hospitals which lack adequate equipment; patients are often discharged inappropriately to clear bed space. Even so, prehospital and emergency room care tends to be provided without the necessary coordination with the pediatric ICU, and structural conditions regarding electrical self-sufficiency, air conditioning, and circulation are met in only few units. Despite the existence of these adverse conditions for the care of critically ill children, a pediatric organ transplant program developed since 1987 has demonstrated 70% to 100% survival rates for 16l orthotopic liver and 9 heart transplants, respectively. Alternatives to improving intensive care in Argentina include optimizing the response of emergency and critical care delivery systems, categorizing hospitals and pediatric ICUs with a regional approach, creating intermediate and chronic care units, and investing more in nursing.

Validación del índice pediátrico de mortalidad 2 (PIM2) en Argentina: un estudio prospectivo, multicéntrico, observacional

INTRODUCTION The Pediatric Index of Mortality 2 (PIM2) is one of the most commonly used scoring systems to predict mortality in patients admitted to pediatric intensive care units (PICU) in Argentina. The objective of this study was to validate the PIM2 score in PICUs participating in the Quality of Care Program promoted by the Argentine Society of Intensive Care. POPULATION AND METHODS Multicenter, prospective, observational, cross-sectional study. All patients between 1 month and 16 years old admitted to participating PICUs between January 1st, 2009 and December 31st, 2009 were included. The discrimination and calibration of the PIM2 score were assessed in the entire population and in different subgroups (risk of mortality, age, diagnoses on admission). RESULTS Two thousand, eight hundred and thirty-two patients were included. PIM2 predicted 246 deaths; however, 297 patients died (p < 0.01). The standardized mortality ratio was 1.20 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01-1.43). The area under the ROC curve was 0.84 (95% CI: 0.82-0.86). Statistically significant differences were detected between the observed and the predicted mortality for the entire population and for the different risk intervals (χ2: 71.02, df: 8, p < 0.001). Statistically significant differences were also found between observed and predicted mortality in adolescent patients (37/22, p = 0.03) and in those hospitalized due to respiratory disease (105/81, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS The PIM2 score adequately discriminates survivors from non-survivors. However, it underscores the overall risk of death, especially in adolescent patients and those hospitalized due to respiratory disease. It is critical to take such differences into account when interpreting results.