Eiji Ito

A Systematic Review of Non-Western and Cross-Cultural/National Leisure Research

Abstract This study reviewed non-Western and cross-cultural/national research published in five major leisure studies journals between 1990 and 2009. Of 1,891 total articles, 4.1% were non-Western and cross-cultural/national in nature. Overall: (a) Greater China was the most frequently studied culture/nation (24.4%); (b) survey research was the most often employed method (33.8%); (c) (b) perceived benefits, motivations, and leisure meanings was the most common theme (14.1%); and (d) although articles on this topic increased fivefold over 20 years, over 90% of recent leisure articles still focused, in whole or in part, on only slightly more than 10% of the worlds population. Culture/nation, methodological, and thematic differences across the five journals are described and implications for leisure theory and practice are outlined.

Similarities and differences in leisure conceptualizations between Japan and Canada and between two Japanese leisure-like terms

This study investigated similarities and differences in leisure conceptualizations between Japan and Canada and between two Japanese leisure-like terms: yoka and rejā. To address these purposes, we developed the Leisure Ten Statements Test (LTST). The LTST asks people to provide 10 open-ended responses to a prompt (e.g., “Leisure _____”). Responses from university students in Japan and Canada were classified, and then statistical analyses were conducted on the proportions of the 26 resulting categories. Results indicated that: (1) leisure conceptualizations differed not only between Japan and Canada but also within Japan depending on terminologies; (2) the loanword rejā has different meanings from its original English word, leisure, suggesting that it has adapted Japanese cultural contexts; and (3) the Japanese leisure-like term that best compares with the English word leisure varies depending on which specific aspect of leisure is of interest.

Ideal Affect, Actual Affect, and Affect Discrepancy during Leisure and Paid Work

Abstract This study examined relationships among ideal affect (i.e., how one prefers to feel) and actual affect during leisure and paid work. Data were collected from individuals who worked at least 20 hours per week. Findings revealed that: (a) low-arousal positive affect was preferred over high- arousal positive affect by female participants; (b) during leisure the low level of high-arousal negative affect male and female participants desired experiencing was realized; (c) the level of low-arousal positive affect male participants preferred experiencing was realized during their leisure; and (d) none of the levels of affect (i.e., high-arousal positive, low-arousal positive, high- arousal negative, low-arousal negative) participants desired experiencing were met during their paid work. Implications for leisure theory and practice are discussed.

Sustainable Sport Tourism in Japan

ABSTRACT Japan is scheduled to host several major international sporting events in the next four years including the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Its sport tourism sector is therefore well positioned for expansion but the issue of sustainability needs to be addressed. This research note sets out to clarify what is known about sustainable sport tourism in Japan as reflected in published research in Japanese and English. As such, it is an attempt to provide a foundation for future research. While several noteworthy publications about the nature of sport tourists and their impacts on destinations were found, continued effort is needed to build these studies into an integrated and coherent body of literature.

Relationships among self-construal, control, and positive affect in Japanese undergraduate students’ leisure experience

ABSTRACT Previous studies have indicated that control and positive affect, which are known to be important aspects of leisure experience, contribute to our psychological well-being. Recently, Ito and Walker’s (2016. Cultural commonality and specificity in Japanese and Euro-Canadian undergraduate students’ leisure experiences: An exploratory study on control and positive affect. Leisure Sciences, 38, 249–267) experience sampling method (ESM) study identified that Japanese undergraduate students experienced primary control, the adjustment aspect of secondary control, and high- and low-arousal positive affect more, and the acceptance aspect of secondary control less, during leisure versus non-leisure participation. This follow-up ESM study, conducted with 41 Japanese undergraduate students, furthers their work by examining the roles of self-construal and types of leisure activities in regard to the significant relationships between leisure participation and experience. Hierarchical linear modelling results indicated that: (a) the moderator effects of self-construal did not exist between leisure participation and experience, and (b) the relationship between leisure participation and experience did not largely vary across types of leisure activities. This study contributes to the growing, yet still understudied, research theme of non-Western leisure and self-construal.

Development of Cross-Culturally Informed Leisure-Time Physical Activity Constraint and Constraint Negotiation Typologies: The Case of Japanese and Euro-Canadian Adults

ABSTRACT Our study purposes were twofold: to inductively develop cross-culturally informed leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) constraint and constraint negotiation typologies and to investigate cultural similarities and differences in LTPA constraints and constraint negotiation using both the newly developed typologies and conventional Western typologies. Useable data were obtained from 211 Euro-Canadians and 183 Japanese using online surveys. A thematic analysis identified nine constraint categories (psychological, physiological and physical fitness, lifestyle, interpersonal, financial, time, commitment, environmental, and LTPA-specific) and nine constraint negotiation strategies (psychological, physiological and physical fitness, lifestyle, interpersonal, financial, time, and three LTPA-specific: modification, management, and self-adaptation). Multivariate analysis of covariance identified no cultural differences when the conventional typologies were analyzed. However, when the culturally informed typologies were similarly analyzed, compared to Japanese, Euro-Canadians reported (a) time constraints more and LTPA-specific constraints less and (b) financial and time negotiation strategies more and the LTPA-specific (i.e., management) negotiation strategies less.

Are Leisure Constraints Models Reflective or Formative?: Evidence from Confirmatory Tetrad Analyses

Kyle and Jun raised a serious question against the way researchers have specified leisure constraints measurement model: Leisure constraints measures should be formatively measured, while the domin...

Cardiometabolic risk factors in type 2 diabetes with high fat and low muscle mass: At baseline and in response to exercise

To examine the interplay between high fat and low muscle mass on cardiometabolic risk factors at baseline and in response to exercise in type 2 diabetes.

Cultural similarities and differences in the relationship between types of leisure activity and happiness in Canadian, Chinese, and Japanese university students

ABSTRACT The purpose of our study was to examine cultural similarities and differences in relationships between Canadian, Chinese, and Japanese university students’ types of leisure activity and their happiness. Stepwise multiple regression results indicated that: (a) personal happiness was associated with exercising among Canadians, social activities and outdoor recreation among Chinese, and social activities among Japanese; and (b) family happiness was associated with sporting events among Canadians, and social activities among Chinese and Japanese. These results suggest that a fuller understanding of the relationships between leisure and happiness can only be achieved if attention is paid to cultural contexts.

Theorizing Leisure's Roles in the Pursuit of Ikigai (Life Worthiness): A Mixed-Methods Approach

ABSTRACT The purpose of this mixed-methods research project is to theorize the linkage between leisure experience and life worthiness, or what the Japanese call ikigai. A grounded theory analysis of photo-elicitation interview data from 27 Japanese university students led to the inductive development of a substantive theory. This theory was then tested based on online survey data collected from 669 Japanese students using structural equation modeling. Results indicate that leisure pursuits enhance students’ perception of ikigai when they are valued as enjoyable and/or effortful. Moreover, the balance between overall enjoyment and/or effort is found to be a key mediator in the relationship between valuable leisure experience and life worthiness. Ikigai comprises the subjective perceptions that ones daily life is worth living and that it is full of energy and motivation. Our findings are discussed in light of relevant leisure and well-being theories as well as their implications for practice.