Eileen M. Ahlin

Risk of Alcohol-Impaired Driving Recidivism Among First Offenders and Multiple Offenders

OBJECTIVES We sought to determine the statewide impact of having prior alcohol-impaired driving violations of any type on the rate of first occurrence or recidivism among drivers with 0, 1, 2, or 3 or more prior violations in Maryland. METHODS We analyzed more than 100 million driver records from 1973 to 2004 and classified all Maryland drivers into 4 groups: those with 0, 1, 2, or 3 or more prior violations. The violation rates for approximately 21 million drivers in these 4 groups were compared for the study period 1999 to 2004. RESULTS On average, there were 3.4, 24.3, 35.9, and 50.8 violations per 1000 drivers a year among those with 0, 1, 2, or 3 or more priors, respectively. The relative risks for men compared with women among these groups of drivers were 3.8, 1.2, 1.0, and 1.0, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The recidivism rate among first offenders more closely resembles that of second offenders than of nonoffenders. Men and women are at equal risk of recidivating once they have had a first violation documented. Any alcohol-impaired driving violation, not just convictions, is a marker for future recidivism.

The effects of closer monitoring on driver compliance with interlock restrictions

This randomized controlled trial of 2168 DWI multiple offenders assigned to a state-wide ignition interlock program in Maryland compared non-compliance with interlock requirements among drivers who were closely monitored (by Westat staff) and drivers who received standard monitoring (by the Motor Vehicle Administration). Compliance comparisons relied on datalogger data from MVAs interlock providers plus driver records that contained demographic information, prior alcohol-related traffic violations, their dispositions, and interlock duration. Measures for quantifying non-compliance included rates per 1000 engine starts for initial breath test failures at varying BAC levels and time periods, retest failures, retest refusals, interlock disconnects, startup violations, and summation measures. Regression analysis estimated the effects of closer monitoring on non-compliance, using linear mixed models that included random driver effects and fixed effects for study-group assignment, prior alcohol-related traffic violations, and months of continuous datalogger data with a quadratic function that assessed changes and rates of change in interlock non-compliance over time. All the separate non-compliance rates and summary measures derived from them were lower for closer monitored than control drivers for continuous data series of at least 6, 12, or 24 months. The differences for initial test failures and the two summary measures were statistically significant. Most measures of non-compliance decreased significantly as continuous time on the interlock increased. Parallel trends in each study group indicated that drivers learned to improve their compliance over time. Thus, this study convincingly demonstrates that closer monitoring substantially enhanced compliance with requirements of the ignition interlock and that regardless of group assignment, compliance increased over time.

Locus of Control Redux: Adolescents’ Choice to Refrain From Violence

While research suggests that an external locus of control predicts violence among offenders, it is unclear whether an internal locus of control (ILOC) acts as a protective factor against involvement in violent behaviors. Furthermore, we know little about the contextual factors that influence the development of an ILOC. This study analyzes the relationship between ILOC and involvement in violent behaviors, examines contextual influences on the development of an ILOC, and assesses whether contextual influences affect the relationship between locus of control and violence. Data are derived from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, a multi-cohort accelerated longitudinal research study of youth living in 80 Chicago neighborhoods during 1994. Focusing on 1,767 youths aged 9 to 19, results indicate that an ILOC is a significant predictor of abstention from violence, even when controlling for individual characteristics and family and neighborhood contextual factors known to influence violence. Several family and neighborhood contextual factors influence an ILOC orientation. Results also indicate that those who are younger, female, and non-Hispanic are more likely to express an ILOC. Implications of the results are discussed.

Levels of Guardianship in Protecting Youth Against Exposure to Violence in the Community

Using hierarchical generalized linear modeling and the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods data, the authors examine whether different types of guardianship protect youth against exposure to violence in the neighborhood while controlling for situations where exposure is most likely to occur. Protective family management practices and internal locus of control significantly reduce exposure to community violence. Contrary to expectations, however, neighborhood collective efficacy exerted no effect. The findings emphasize the importance of considering family management practices and individual characteristics as protective factors against harmful environments. Further, guardianship is not restricted to external informal agents of control.

Varieties of Veterans’ Courts: A Statewide Assessment of Veterans’ Treatment Court Components:

Since the mid-2000s, there has been an upsurge in the development of Veterans’ Treatment Courts (VTCs) to support justice-involved veterans’ treatment needs while also providing criminal justice supervision. Despite their prolific development in recent years, there is a dearth of scholarly research on how VTCs are structured and whether there are common components across courts. There is a need to understand how VTCs are structured and operationally implemented to inform additional program planning and evaluation. To bridge this gap in the literature, this study provides a statewide assessment of the 17 VTCs operating in Pennsylvania, identifies six common components, and highlights areas in which their implementation diverges between courts to meet the specific needs of veterans across Pennsylvania. The results of this study provide a baseline framework to aid future researchers in conducting process and outcome evaluations by documenting and examining the common components of VTCs.

Protecting Youth Against Exposure to Violence Intersections of Race/Ethnicity, Neighborhood, Family, and Friends

Youths’ exposure to violence (ETV) can have damaging effects especially in relation to the development of problem behaviors and psychological functioning. The devastating effects of exposure have also been found to vary by race and ethnicity. Though affirmative parenting can protect against ETV, researchers have yet to focus on the value of assessing different family management strategies and how these parenting practices may differ by race or ethnicity. Further, there is scant research on the nexus between protective family management strategies, peer relationships, and neighborhood characteristics, all of which influence ETV. In the current study, we account for these various contexts and youth covariates of ETV and examine how they work together in predicting ETV. Using data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, we employ hierarchical linear modeling to test the protective effects of various parenting strategies against ETV among African American, Hispanic, and White youth aged 9–19.

Support for Restorative Justice in a Sample of U.S. University Students

Theories of restorative justice suggest that the practice works best when offenders are enmeshed in multiple interdependencies or attachments to others and belong to a culture that facilitates communitarianism instead of individualism. Restorative justice principles and practices are thus believed to be incongruent with the individualistic culture and legal system of the United States, especially compared with that of nations like Australia and Japan. Using a nonprobability convenience sample of students enrolled in a large public university in the United States, our study examines attitudes toward restorative justice as a fair and just process for reintegrating offenders and meeting the needs of victims. Results indicate that our sample holds less punitive attitudes than citizens in either Australia or Japan. Our findings are discussed in light of recent policy shifts in the United States that suggest a concerted move toward decarceration following the 2008 recession.

Latency Periods Between Alcohol-Related Traffic Violations: Implications for Recidivism

Objective: Before October 1, 2002, Marylands regulations for relicensing drivers with 2 recorded alcohol-related traffic violations distinguished between offenders with 5 or more years between their first and second violations and those with less than 5 years. Our research examined whether this policy was supported by differential probabilities of recidivism and violation-free survival. Methods: We compared recidivism rates and survival probabilities among the 2 latency subgroups and 2 control groups (first offenders and drivers with no previous alcohol-related traffic violation). Data were extracted from Marylands driver record database and segregated files and analyzed by age quintiles using Cox proportional hazards models containing identifiers for risk factors, including prior violations. All drivers (N = 64,536) were matched on age quintile, gender, and month of offenders’ index violations. Effects of violation histories on survival and recidivism probabilities were measured by contrasts of regression coefficients. Results: Among second offenders, the shorter latency subgroup consistently had higher recidivism and lower violation-free survival than the longer latency subgroup, whose rates fell between those of first offenders and the shorter latency subgroup. Although highly significant, the subgroup differences were small and paled by comparison to differences between first and zero offenders in probability of a subsequent violation. Conclusions: An earlier study that showed similar overall recidivism for these latency subgroups helped encourage Maryland to change its regulations governing license reinstatement. New regulations issued October 1, 2002, focused on 2 alcohol violations “during any period of time” where investigation indicated alcoholism or unaddressed alcohol problems. To obtain relicensure, these offenders could be required to enter or complete a lengthy certified alcohol treatment program. Our current results are consistent with these requirements. License reinstatement should be primarily guided by the extent of alcohol impairment, especially because both latency subgroups showed higher risks of recidivism than first offenders, who themselves had comparatively high risk.

Do NCCHC Dental Standards Have Any Teeth

Federal civil rights law establishes legal parameters for correctional dental care, but it does not provide specific standards for implementation. Thus, courts have developed guidelines on a case-by-case basis, often rendering the National Commission on Correctional Health Care (NCCHC) standards on dental care the de facto benchmark for institutions. This systematic review of all court cases that apply NCCHC standards for dentistry in prisons examines how courts use NCCHC standards and provides insights into whether those standards have any “teeth,” or power, in a legal sense. These findings consider the legal relevance of NCCHC standards and speak more broadly to the role of professional organizations in the legal and correctional communities.

Risk Factors of Sexual Assault and Victimization Among Youth in Custody

Research suggests that youth are at higher risk of sexual assault and victimization while in custody than adult inmates. However, compared with adult inmates, very little is known about the risk factors associated with such violence among youth in custody. Without sufficient research on risk factors associated with sexual assault and victimization among youth in custody, practitioners and policy makers may be reliant on the adult literature when making decisions about how to address and prevent such violence among juveniles. This article seeks to determine if extrapolating data from the substantial prison literature is appropriate by assessing the parallels between risk factors of sexual assault and victimization among youth in custody and those identified for adult inmates. This study uses data of 8,659 youth from the second administration of the National Survey of Youth in Custody (NSYC-2) to assess correlates of sexual assault and victimization during periods of detention. Study findings show that experiences with assault and victimization prior to the present period of detention were stronger indicators of sexual assault and victimization while in custody than youth characteristics and demographics and other experiences with assault and victimization. Further, there are differences in risk factors associated with sexual assault and victimization among youth in custody compared to adult inmates, which emphasizes the risk of prior sexual assault and victimization in the community and prior custodial settings.