Elaine Vaughan

The Perception of Environmental Risks among Ethnically Diverse Groups

Social science theories and empirical data on perceptions of environmental risk have focused almost exclusively on factors related to frequently occurring disagreements between the lay population and technical experts. Discussions of variability within the nonexpert population itself are uncommon, even though theories of risk and culture, as well as empirical evidence, suggest that significant differences in judgments may occur within a diverse population such as that in the United States. Perceptions of risk are influenced, in part, by characteristic ways in which situations of uncertainty are framed and interpreted. Because culturally based attitudes and values can influence general orientation toward risk and uncertainty, it is reasonable to expect that factors differentiating individuals on the basis of shared experiences, values, and beliefs relevant to risk evaluation will be associated with nonequivalent perceptions in many situations. One such variable, ethnicity, is examined for its association with variability in perceptions of environmental risk. The authors review available evidence indicating when ethnic differences in risk perceptions have been observed, and consider three hypotheses that could explain why ethnicity would be predictive of dissimilarities in judgments for many environmental risks. Possible explanations for an ethnicity effect include differences in prior experiences with or exposure to various hazards, dissimilar general beliefs about risk and uncertainty, and differences on various qualitative dimensions that influence nonexpert assessments of risk.

Chronic exposure to an environmental hazard: risk perceptions and self-protective behavior.

The risk perceptions and self-protective behavior of 282 immigrant farm workers (all of Mexican origin) in response to pesticide exposure were examined. Several variables were predicted to influence reactions, but some deviations from past studies were expected because cultural or socioeconomic factors could modify risk responses. In keeping with predictions, greater risk perceptions were associated with beliefs that past harm had occurred, future harm to self or offspring was likely, precautions were less effective, and cancer-causing agents were mostly unavoidable. Self-protective behavior was most likely for those receiving risk information, having greater perceptions of control over health and the occupational situation, and believing that precautionary methods were effective. The discussion considers variability in responses to chronic risk and the broader perspective offered by environmental hazard studies.

The Socioeconomic Context of Exposure and Response to Environmental Risk

This research examined the association between socioeconomic factors and the risk responses of 437 Mexican immigrant farmworkers chronically exposed to agricultural pesticides. Past explanations for patterns of risk responses have focused on intra-individual factors, and usually have minimized the possible influence of socioeconomic circumstances on adaptation to risk. Immigrant farmworkers from a variety of occupational contexts participated in this investigation and were expected to systematically differ in their response to pesticide exposure depending on socioeconomic circumstances, judgments about the risk situation, and the subjective evaluation of occupational conditions. Analyses revealed that beliefs about the risks of pesticides were not randomly distributed throughout this sample, but varied with socioeconomic factors. For example, workers who were in more limited economic circumstances judged future health effects to be more likely, and believed that safety precautions were less effective. Additionally, socioeconomic circumstances modified the relationship between intra-individual factors and response to risk. The discussion considers several possible links between socio-economic factors and risk adaptation, and implications for environmental policy.

Cultural differences in young children's vulnerability to injuries: a risk and protection perspective.

Interview data from 100 lower income Hispanic and 50 White mothers from a nutritional service clinic extended prior research on cultural differences in the risk for unintentional pediatric injuries. Group differences were expected in reported injury incidence and in the prevalence and impact of contributing factors. As predicted, White mothers reported more injuries for a young child, and among Hispanic mothers, English language preference and use were associated with more reported injuries. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that risky behaviors, mothers judgment about child compliance, and stressful life events were better predictors of injuries than housing quality, but among Hispanics, the impact of certain factors (e.g. child temperament) was qualified by mothers acculturation level. Stress and child temperament explained injury differences between more- and less-acculturated Hispanic families but only partially accounted for differences between White mothers and less-acculturated Hispanics. Pediatric injury risk and protective factors seemed to operate in concert with cultural processes.

Anticipated affective consequences of physical activity adoption and maintenance.

OBJECTIVE The expected emotional consequences of future actions are thought to play an important role in health behavior change. This research examined whether anticipated affective consequences of success and failure vary across stages of physical activity change and differentially predict physical activity adoption as compared to maintenance. DESIGN Using a prospective design over a 3-month period, a community sample of 329 healthy, middle-aged adults were assessed at 2 time points. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Anticipated positive and negative emotions, stage of behavior change (precontemplation [PC], contemplation [C], preparation [P], action [A], maintenance [M]), and level of physical activity. RESULTS At baseline, anticipated positive emotions were greater in C versus PC, whereas anticipated negative emotions were greater in M versus A and in M versus P. Higher anticipated positive but not negative emotions predicted physical activity adoption and maintenance after 3 months. CONCLUSION Although the expected affective consequences of future success and failure differentiated among individuals in the early and later stages of physical activity change, respectively; only the anticipated affective consequences of success predicted future behavior.

Diverse Perceptions of the Informed Consent Process: Implications for the Recruitment and Participation of Diverse Communities in the National Children’s Study

We examined the experiences, perceptions, and values that are brought to bear when individuals from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds consider participating in health research. Fifty-three women from Latino, Asian American, Middle Eastern, or Non-Latino, White backgrounds participated in seven English or Spanish focus groups facilitated by trained investigators using a standard protocol. Investigators described the National Children’s Study (NCS) and then asked questions to elicit potential concerns, expectations, and informational needs. Group sessions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using qualitative thematic methods. A major theme that emerged during focus groups was participant self-identification as a member of a cultural group or community when raising issues that would influence their decision to participate in research. A related theme was the belief by some that communities may differ in the ease of participation in the NCS. Identified themes related to the informed consent process included perceived risks, anticipated burden, perceived benefits, informational needs, and decision-making strategies. Although themes were shared across groups, there were cultural differences within themes. Findings indicated that individuals from diverse backgrounds may have different perspectives on and expectations for the research process. To effectively recruit representative samples, it will be important to address a range of issues relevant for informed consent and to consider the impact of participation on both individuals and communities.

Difficult socio-economic circumstances and the utilization of risk information: A study of Mexican agricultural workers in the USA

Abstract Experiences associated with challenging socio-economic conditions may impact on motivational and cognitive processes that influence risk or health information processing. Within a population living in poverty, this study explored whether differences in socio-economic circumstances, and the subjective evaluation of these conditions, were associated with the utilization of new scientific evidence when judging risks. Using an experimental design, scientific information (i.e., strength of risk evidence and chemical persistence) was systematically varied in profiles of hazardous chemicals, and presented to a sample of 437 immigrant farm labourers in the USA. Participants were measured on several socio-economic indicators including education, migrant status, expectations for stable employment and perceptions of economic options. As predicted, when compared to labourers who believed themselves to be less dependent on their employment situation, participants who felt more economically dependent utilized scientific evidence less when judging the risks presented by environmental chemicals. The subjective appraisal of challenging socio-economic conditions may affect risk judgements through the utilization or processing of relevant information. The research is discussed in reference to dual-process theories of reasoning, and public health and agricultural policies that depend on individual actions to minimize the health risks of pesticide exposure.

Maternal Perspectives on the Return of Genetic Results: Context Matters

The objectives of this study were to study maternal preferences for the return of their childs genetic results and to describe the experiences, perceptions, attitudes, and values that are brought to bear when individuals from different racial and cultural backgrounds consider participating in genetic research. We recruited women with diverse sociodemographic profiles to participate in seven focus groups. Twenty‐eight percent of participants self‐identified as Hispanic; 49% as White, non‐Hispanic; and 21% as Asian or Asian American. Focus groups were conducted in English or Spanish and were audio‐recorded and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were analyzed using qualitative thematic methods. Results indicated that preferences and decisions regarding the return of results may depend on both research and individual contextual factors. Participants understood the return of results as a complex issue, where individual and cultural differences in preferences are certain to arise. Another key finding was that participants desired an interpersonal, dynamic, flexible process that accommodated individual preferences and contextual differences for returning results. Our findings indicate a need to have well‐developed systems for allowing participants to make and change over time their choices regarding the return of their childs genetic results.

Community member and faith leader perspectives on the process of building trusting relationships between communities and researchers.

In the first phase of this research, we conducted, audio‐recorded, and transcribed seven focus groups with more than 50 English‐ or Spanish‐speaking women of childbearing age. Qualitative analysis revealed the following themes: (1) expectation that participation would involve relationships based on trust that is built over time and impacted by cultural factors; (2) perceived characteristics of research staff that would help facilitate the development of trusting relationships; (3) perceptions about the location of the visits that may affect trust; (4) perceptions of a research study and trust for the institution conducting the study may affect trust; (5) connecting the study to larger communities, including faith communities, could affect trust and willingness to participate. In the second phase of this research, we conducted, recorded, transcribed, and analyzed interviews with leaders from diverse faith communities to explore the potential for research partnerships between researchers and faith communities. In addition to confirming themes identified in focus groups, faith leaders described an openness to research partnerships between the university and faith communities and considerations for the formation of these partnerships. Faith leaders noted the importance of finding common ground with researchers, establishing and maintaining trusting relationships, and committing to open, bidirectional communication.

Farmworkers and Pesticide Exposure: Perceived Risk and Self-Protective Behavior

The recent increase in Right-to-Know laws has provided many in the workplace with additional knowledge about the risks of chemical hazards and information on the use of self-protective behaviors to decrease exposure. However, society has proceeded in risk management as if occupational exposure to hazards were completely voluntary and the provision of information concerning chemical exposure and protective measures were readily available and utilized by all workers. This may not be true for those workers of lower socioeconomic status for whom alternative employment may not be available, and the use of certain protective measures may be perceived as being non-utilitarian. In California, the majority of agricultural labor is provided by migrant farmworkers who, on the average, earn an annual income far below the national poverty level. Migrant farmworkers frequently come in contact with pesticide residues on fruit and vegetable crops in the field. Many of these substances have been associated with a variety of acute and chronic illnesses. In this paper, a study is described that examines psychological variables influencing the use of self-protective behavior to avoid pesticide exposure in a sample of migrant farmworkers. These workers were surveyed in regard to pesticide exposure, beliefs about effectiveness of self-protective behavior, knowledge and utilization of self-protective behavior, perception of risk, voluntariness of exposure, and control over exposure.