Eldra P. Solomon

The Biology of Trauma: Implications for Treatment

During the past 20 years, the development of brain imaging techniques and new biochemical approaches has led to increased understanding of the biological effects of psychological trauma. New hypotheses have been generated about brain development and the roots of antisocial behavior. We now understand that psychological trauma disrupts homeostasis and can cause both short and long-term effects on many organs and systems of the body. Our expanding knowledge of the effects of trauma on the body has inspired new approaches to treating trauma survivors. Biologically informed therapy addresses the physiological effects of trauma, as well as cognitive distortions and maladaptive behaviors. The authors suggest that the most effective therapeutic innovation during the past 20 years for treating trauma survivors has been Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), a therapeutic approach that focuses on resolving trauma using a combination of top-down (cognitive) and bottom-up (affect/body) processing.

Type III Trauma: Toward a More Effective Conceptualization of Psychological Trauma

Research on offenders and crime victims underscores the importance of identifying trauma-related events and treating their effects. The authors build on the work of psychiatrist Lenore Terr, who distinguished Types I and II psychological trauma, by proposing a third category, Type III trauma. Type III trauma occurs when an individual experiences multiple, pervasive, violent events beginning at an early age and continuing over a long period of time. Diagnostic criteria include alterations in memory and consciousness, frequently including dissociation; emotional numbing; major developmental deficits; poorly developed, often fragmented, sense of self; a core belief that he or she is fatally flawed and has no right to be alive; a sense of hopelessness and shame; trust issues that interfere with normal relationships; and no concept of a future. Treatment of individuals who have sustained Type III trauma is more complex and demanding relative to survivors of Types I or II trauma.

Female juvenile murderers: Biological and psychological dynamics leading to homicide

The increasing involvement of girls under 18 in violent crime has been a matter of growing concern in the United States in recent years. This article reviews the arrests of female juveniles for violent crime and then focuses specifically on their involvement in homicide. Arrests of girls for murder, unlike arrests for assault, have not risen over the last 30 years, suggesting that the dynamics that propel female juveniles to engage in lethal violence differ from those contributing to assaultive behavior by this same group. A review of the literature indicates that theories as to why female adolescents kill do not take into account recent scientific findings on brain development and the biological effects of early trauma in explaining serious violent behavior by girls. Three cases, evaluated by the authors, involving female adolescents charged with murder or attempted murder, are presented. The authors focus on the biological and psychological dynamics that help explain their violent behavior. They discuss the effects of insecure attachment and child maltreatment, and trace a critical pathway between these early experiences and future risk of violent behavior. The dynamics of child maltreatment in fostering rage and violence are discussed thereafter in terms of offender accountability. The article concludes with a discussion of treatment and recommendations for future research.

Male and Female Juveniles Arrested for Murder A Comprehensive Analysis of U.S. Data by Offender Gender

Murders committed by juveniles remain a serious concern in the United States. Most studies on juvenile homicide offenders (JHOs) have used small samples and have concentrated on male offenders. As a result, little is known about female JHOs and how they differ from their male counterparts on a national level. This study utilized the Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) database to examine more than 40,000 murders committed by male and female juvenile offenders from 1976 to 2005. This research effort, the most expansive to date, replicated previous findings with respect to gender differences using bivariate and multivariate analyses. As predicted, six variables used to test eight hypotheses with respect to male and female JHOs in single-victim incidents were significant (victim age, victim–offender relationship, murder weapon, offender count, victim gender, and homicide circumstance). Regression analysis revealed that all variables remained significant when entered into the model. This article concludes with a discussion of our findings and directions for future research.

Male and Female Juvenile Homicide Offenders: An Empirical Analysis of U.S. Arrests by Offender Age

Most studies on juvenile homicide offenders (JHOs) have used small samples and concentrated on male teenage offenders. No large scale research has analyzed victim, offender, and offense correlates among younger and older JHOs. Supplementary Homicide Research (SHR) data (1976-2007) are used to explore gender and age differences among JHOs. Male and female JHOs were divided into younger (below age 13) and older (age 13-17 years) groups. Gender differences previously found with respect to victim age, victim gender, victim offender relationship, weapon, and circumstance remained when the effect of offender age was controlled. The implications of these findings are discussed.

EMDR: An Evidence-Based Treatment for Victims of Trauma

Abstract More than half of the United States population has been affected by psychological trauma. Many individuals who survive traumatic experiences develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related psychological problems. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is an effective treatment for such disorders. EMDR focuses on reprocessing the dysfunctionally stored memories of the traumatic experience, enabling the client to progress through appropriate stages of affect and insight to reach an adaptive resolution regarding critical issues such as personal responsibility, safety in the present, and the availability of choices in the future. This article describes EMDR, discusses studies of its effectiveness, and concludes with recommendations for trauma-related policy and practice.

Mental health professionals in forensic arenas

The authors discuss a variety of forensic matters using cases in which they have been involved as experts. Pertinent issues are illustrated in cases in which the offender is charged with homicide. The need for a comprehensive evaluation, the importance of corroboration of the offenders statements, and the value of preparing a thorough report are discussed.

Intervention strategies for victims of sexual abuse: a model for building self-esteem

This article begins by explaining the devastating effects of child sexual abuse on the self-esteem of its victims. Intervention strategies are discussed with a focus on a self-esteem model — the SEAs Program — developed by psychologist James Messina. This program uses trained psychotherapists and group members to expand each survivors support system. Cognitive and experiential techniques are implemented in a humanistic framework to help clients recover from low self-esteem. Preliminary results from an outcome study utilizing three measures of self esteem and coping strategies (the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, the Need for Harmony Scale and Spielbergers Anger Expression Scale) suggest that this model shows promise in helping women who are survivors of child sexual abuse to build healthy self-esteem and warrants further investigation.