Elena Zavyalova

Visualization of fibrinogen αC regions and their arrangement during fibrin network formation by high‐resolution AFM

Fibrinogen has been intensively studied with transmission electron microscopy and x‐ray diffraction. But until now, a complete 3D structure of the molecule has not yet been available because the two highly flexible αC regions could not be resolved in fibrinogen crystals. This study was aimed at determining whether the αC regions can be visualized by high‐resolution atomic force microscopy.

Novel modular DNA aptamer for human thrombin with high anticoagulant activity.

Aptamers based on nucleic acids are a promising alternative to antibodies in therapy and diagnostics. Several DNA aptamers against human thrombin have been developed by selection from random libraries: a 15-mer and its derivatives, a 29-mer, and a 31-mer. Some of them are patented and already under clinical trial. The 15-mer structure was determined by X-ray and NMR and turned out to be a monomolecular antiparallel G-quadruplex. The other aptamers mentioned above have higher inhibitory activity than the initial 15-mer, but there are not yet structural data explaining this phenomenon. Here, the initial 15-mer, 31-mer, and novel RA-36 aptamers are compared to establish the structure-function correlation, providing a solid ground for further rational aptameric drug design. For the molecular dynamic simulation of aptamers, the force field parmbsc0 was ported onto GROMACS, and the main stabilizing parameters were revealed, leading to the novel DNA aptamer RA-36. The functional properties of the DNA aptamers were studied by conventional coagulation tests, which do not directly elucidate the mechanism of thrombin inhibition by aptamers. Improved turbidimetric measurements provided data to develop detailed kinetics showing that the 31-mer and RA-36, in contrast to the 15-mer, are competitive inhibitors. These data revealed RA-36 to be an efficient thrombin inhibitor with a dose-dependent effect. Animal tests of the studied DNA aptamers suggested an unexpected species-specificity of the novel RA-36.

Investigation of early stages of fibrin association.

Interactions between fibrinogen molecules proteolytically cleaved with thrombin were investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Gradually decreased fibrinogen concentrations were used to study the fibrin network, large separated fibrils, small fibrils in the initial association stages, and protofibrils. In addition, a new type of structure was found in AFM experiments at a low fibrinogen concentration (20 nM): the molecules in these single-stranded associates are arranged in a row, one after the other. The height, diameter, and distance between domains in these single-stranded associates were the same as those in the original fibrinogen molecules. DLS data assumed formation of extended associates in bulk solution at fibrinogen concentration as low as 20 nM.

DNA Aptamers for Human Thrombin with High Anticoagulant Activity Demonstrate Target- and Species-Specificity

G-quadruplex-based DNA aptamers for human thrombin represent promising pharmaceuticals having high anticoagulant activity, rapid clearance from the bloodstream, and availability of DNA antidote. High specificity of aptamers minimizes side-effects but at the same time leads to difficulties when choosing animal model for preclinical trials. Well described minimal G-quadruplex 15-TBA, elongated with hinge and duplex regions 31-TBA, and developed recently modular aptamer RA-36 were investigated thoroughly and compared in this paper. To estimate the species-specificity of aptamers the inhibition constants and types were determined for human fibrinogen hydrolysis with human, bovine, porcine, rabbit, rat, and mouse thrombins using turbidimetric assay. Coagulation tests on human fibrinogen, factor II deficient human plasma and animal plasmas were conducted to verify turbidimetric data and reveal either the concentration effects or the influence of other plasma components. And finally, a set of tests on blood clotting cascade was performed to investigate target-specificity of RA-36 aptamer.

Evaluation of Antithrombotic Activity of Thrombin DNA Aptamers by a Murine Thrombosis Model

Aptamers are nucleic acid based molecular recognition elements with a high potential for the theranostics. Some of the aptamers are under development for therapeutic applications as promising antithrombotic agents; and G-quadruplex DNA aptamers, which directly inhibit the thrombin activity, are among them. RA-36, the 31-meric DNA aptamer, consists of two thrombin binding pharmacophores joined with the thymine linker. It has been shown earlier that RA-36 directly inhibits thrombin in the reaction of fibrinogen hydrolysis, and also it inhibits plasma and blood coagulation. Studies of both inhibitory and anticoagulation effects had indicated rather high species specificity of the aptamer. Further R&D of RA-36 requires exploring its efficiency in vivo. Therefore the development of a robust and adequate animal model for effective physiological studies of aptamers is in high current demand. This work is devoted to in vivo study of the antithrombotic effect of RA-36 aptamer. A murine model of thrombosis has been applied to reveal a lag and even prevention of thrombus formation when RA-36 was intravenous bolus injected in high doses of 1.4–7.1 µmol/kg (14–70 mg/kg). A comparative study of RA-36 aptamer and bivalirudin reveals that both direct thrombin inhibitors have similar antithrombotic effects for the murine model of thrombosis; though in vitro bivalirudin has anticoagulation activity several times higher compared to RA-36. The results indicate that both RA-36 aptamer and bivalirudin are direct thrombin inhibitors of different potency, but possible interactions of the thrombin-inhibitor complex with other components of blood coagulation cascade level the physiological effects for both inhibitors.

Kinetic characterization of inhibition of human thrombin with DNA aptamers by turbidimetric assay.

A sensitive turbidimetric method for detecting fibrin association was used to study the kinetics of fibrinogen hydrolysis with thrombin. The data were complemented by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) measurements of the peptide products, fibrinopeptides released during hydrolysis. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) data showed that the fibril diameter is the main geometric parameter influencing the turbidity. The turbidimetric assay was validated using thrombin with the standard activity. To study thrombin inhibitors, a kinetic model that allows estimating the inhibition constants and the type of inhibition was proposed. The kinetic model was used to study the inhibitory activity of the two DNA aptamers 15-TBA (thrombin-binding aptamer) and 31-TBA, which bind to thrombin exosites. For the first time, 31-TBA was shown to possess the competitive inhibition type, whereas the shortened aptamer 15-TBA has the noncompetitive inhibition type.

Aptamers to Hemagglutinin: A Novel Tool for Influenza Virus Recognition and Neutralization

Influenza virus can cause epidemics and pandemics of flu. A highly variable virus genome is responsible for the existence of different viral strains and acquired resistance to antiviral drugs. Today, only one class of therapeutics, neuraminidase inhibitors, is efficient and proved for influenza prophylaxis and treatment; whereas M2 protein inhibitors became inefficient due to evolving drug resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of novel therapeutics. Aptamers are promising molecular recognition elements of high specificity and low toxicity, but only a few of them are under development as therapeutics. After selection of primary aptamers, there are sophisticated steps of further adjustments to the target and meeting requirements for therapeutics. In the last decade, dozens of DNA and RNA aptamers to various influenza types have been selected, but no comparative analyses have been performed yet. Most of aptamers were selected to hemagglutinin, a viral surface protein, which supports the first stages of virus invasion into the host cell. In the review, all available data on aptamers to hemagglutinin are analyzed. Aptamer specificity and affinity are discussed, as well as examples of aptamer applications for virus detection and virus infection inhibition. In summary, aptamers can be selected for hemagglutinin recognition, aptamers to hemagglutinin can recognize viruses with different specificity, and some aptamers can neutralize virus in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo. Special sections of the review are dedicated to the original structural analyses. Some structural similarities among different aptamers have been revealed suggesting involvement into the target recognition.

G-Quadruplex Aptamers to Human Thrombin Versus Other Direct Thrombin Inhibitors: The Focus on Mechanism of Action and Drug Efficiency as Anticoagulants

Thrombin is a key enzyme of blood coagulation system which has multiple functions including pro- and anticoagulant, platelet aggregating and inflammatory activities. Unsurprisingly, this enzyme has been a target for anticoagulant drug development for decades. Among the most interesting direct thrombin inhibitors with intravenous administration route are the following ones: 1) hirudins, proteins with bivalent binding mode to the thrombin, 2) bivalirudin, the peptide with bivalent binding mode to the thrombin, 3) argatroban, the chemical that binds to the thrombin active site, and 4) G-quadruplex DNA aptamers, structured oligonucleotides with an affinity to protein-binding site of the thrombin. Efficiency of all these inhibitors has been studied in vivo in preclinical and clinical trials, as well as in vitro with various tests, allowing to compare them thoroughly. In the review three levels of comparison were used to highlight the features of each inhibitor: 1) thrombin inhibition constants as a characteristic of inhibitor potency in simple enzymatic system; 2) inhibition of fibrin fiber formation and thrombin generation in coagulation cascade as a characteristic of anticoagulant potency in human blood plasma; and 3) therapeutic doses used and therapeutic profiles obtained after intravenous administration into animals and humans. The data clearly demonstrate weak and strong aspects of thrombin binding aptamers providing a solid background for further novel anticoagulant development. .

Multiple inhibitory kinetics reveal an allosteric interplay among thrombin functional sites.

Thrombin is a key blood clotting enzyme; therefore, developing of its inhibitors has become a mainstream in antithrombotic pharmacology. As a result, a wide variety of proteins, peptides, peptidomimetics, DNA, RNA, and carbohydrates were reported to be effective inhibitors of thrombin activities. The majority of described inhibitors were characterized kinetically with amidolytic assay only; though some of them inhibit fibrinogen binding rather than amidolytic activity, e.g. hirugen and nucleic acid aptamers. Per contra, studying the inhibition kinetics of fibrinogen hydrolysis might reveal essential peculiarities of mechanism of action of thrombin inhibitors. In this paper the effect of thrombin inhibitors on fibrinogen hydrolysis has been investigated using improved turbidimetric assay. This technique is highly productive versus fibrinopeptide determination allowing elucidation of inhibition type and apparent constant for different types of thrombin inhibitors. The protein (recombinant hirudin, antithrombin III), peptide (bivalirudin, hirugen), and peptidomimetic (argatroban, PPACK) inhibitors were characterized in terms of inhibition types for the first time. Unexpectedly, for others: heparin, RNA aptamer Toggle-25t, partial inhibition has been shown indicating allosteric interplay between exosites. Improved turbidimetric assay is also applicable for studying the fibrin association inhibitors. Hence, GPRP-peptide was characterized kinetically for the first time. The kinetic study revealed a repertoire of different inhibition types and also close allosteric interplay within the thrombin. The results are undoubtedly important for understanding the enzyme activity regulation, as well as for the rational development of new antithrombotic substances.

Development of Antithrombotic Aptamers: From Recognizing Elements to Drugs

Blood hemostasis is attained with two sophisticated interconnected network systems, a coagulation cascade and a platelet activation system. Multiple inhibitors were developed to various components of both systems to prevent thrombosis-related morbid events that are of extremely high frequency in the human population. Antithrombotic inhibitors possess both positive and negative aspects. One of the essential modern requirements is a controllable mode of action for both anticoagulants and antiplatelets that could be achieved due to the high affinity and specificity of the inhibitor, as well as a possibility to apply an antidote, which quickly annihilates activity of the inhibitor and restores the proper hemostasis. Aptamers are DNA or RNA oligonucleotides with particular tertiary structure, such as DNA guanine quadruplex. Besides antibodies and other peptides/proteins, aptamers are one more example of the molecular recognizing elements that specifically bind to the target. Therefore, aptamers could be developed into a promising novel class of the drugs with high affinity, specificity, innate low toxicity, and rational antidote. Several aptamers with prospective antithrombotic activity have been reviewed; some of them are in preclinical and clinical trials.