Eliane Silva

Bovine Mastitis Associated with Prototheca blaschkeae

ABSTRACT Bovine mastitis is an important and complex disease responsible for economic losses in the dairy industry. Biotype II strains of the green alga Prototheca zopfii can be involved, most often resulting in chronic mastitis of difficult treatment associated with reduced milk production. This type of infection is rare, but the number of reported cases is increasing worldwide. In order to determine the kind of species involved in mastitis by Prototheca in northwest Portugal, 41 Prototheca isolates were genetically characterized. The algae are part of Prototheca isolates that were collected during a 6-year period, isolated from the milk of 41 dairy cows in a total of 22 herds with a history of increasing somatic cell counts, mild clinical signs of udder infection, and unsuccessful response to the usual therapy. PCR amplification of the 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA), amplified rDNA restriction analysis, and phylogenetic analyses of the 18S rDNA sequences were performed. Thirty-seven isolates were identified as P. zopfii var. hydrocarbonea and four as Prototheca blaschkeae. These data suggest a high incidence of P. zopfii var. hydrocarbonea mastitis in the region and demonstrate for the first time the involvement of P. blaschkeae with bovine mammary gland infections.

Canine parvovirus 2c infection in central Portugal

Canine parvovirus (CPV) has been evolving, generating new genetic and antigenic variants throughout the world. This study was conducted to determine the types of CPV circulating in dogs in Figueira da Foz, Portugal. Thirty fecal samples, collected between 2006 and 2007 from dogs with clinical signs of CPV infection, were tested for CPV by a rapid, in-clinic, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)/immunomigration test, by conventional real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and by minor-groove binding TaqMan PCR. Of the 29 PCR-positive samples, 15 were identified as CPV-2b and 14 as CPV-2c. No CPV-2a was detected. The sensitivity of the ELISA test was 82.76% compared with the PCR assays. No significant associations were found between CPV type, clinical outcome, breed, vaccination status, or age.

Detection of RHDV strains in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis): earliest evidence of rabbit lagovirus cross-species infection

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) is a highly lethal Lagovirus, family Caliciviridae, that threatens European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Although a related virus severely affects hares, cross-species infection was only recently described for new variant RHDV in Cape hares (Lepus capensis mediterraneus). We sequenced two strains from dead Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) collected in the 1990s in Portugal. Clinical signs were compatible with a Lagovirus infection. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete capsid gene positioned them in the RHDV genogroup that circulated on the Iberian Peninsula at that time. This is the earliest evidence of RHDV affecting a species other than European rabbits.

Domestic Dog Origin of Canine Distemper Virus in Free-ranging Wolves in Portugal as Revealed by Hemagglutinin Gene Characterization

Serologic evidence for canine distemper virus (CDV) has been described in grey wolves but, to our knowledge, virus strains circulating in wolves have not been characterized genetically. The emergence of CDV in several non-dog hosts has been associated with amino acid substitutions at sites 530 and 549 of the hemagglutinin (H) protein. We sequenced the H gene of wild-type canine distemper virus obtained from two free-ranging Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) and from one domestic dog (Canis familiaris). More differences were found between the two wolf sequences than between one of the wolves (wolf 75) and the dog. The latter two had a very high nucleotide similarity resulting in identical H gene amino acid sequences. Possible explanations include geographic and especially temporal proximity of the CDV obtained from wolf 75 and the domestic dog, taken in 2007–2008, as opposed to that from wolf 3 taken more distantly in 1998. Analysis of the deduced amino acids of the viral hemagglutinin revealed a glycine (G) and a tyrosine (Y) at amino acid positions 530 and 549, respectively, of the partial signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM)-receptor binding region which is typically found in viral strains obtained from domestic dogs. This suggests that the CDV found in these wolves resulted from transmission events from local domestic dogs rather than from wildlife species.

Proposal for a unified classification system and nomenclature of lagoviruses

Lagoviruses belong to the Caliciviridae family. They were first recognized as highly pathogenic viruses of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and European brown hare (Lepus europaeus) that emerged in the 1970-1980s, namely, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV), according to the host species from which they had been first detected. However, the diversity of lagoviruses has recently expanded to include new related viruses with varying pathogenicity, geographic distribution and host ranges. Together with the frequent recombination observed amongst circulating viruses, there is a clear need to establish precise guidelines for classifying and naming lagovirus strains. Therefore, here we propose a new nomenclature based on phylogenetic relationships. In this new nomenclature, a single species of lagovirus would be recognized and called Lagovirus europaeus. The species would be divided into two genogroups that correspond to RHDV- and EBHSV-related viruses, respectively. Genogroups could be subdivided into genotypes, which could themselves be subdivided into phylogenetically well-supported variants. Based on available sequences, pairwise distance cutoffs have been defined, but with the accumulation of new sequences these cutoffs may need to be revised. We propose that an international working group could coordinate the nomenclature of lagoviruses and any proposals for revision.

Algaemia in a dairy cow by Prototheca blaschkeae

We describe the first known case of an algaemia by Prototheca blaschkeae in a dairy cow, which occurred after a chronic episode of mastitis caused by this pathogen. The organism was isolated from milk, joint fluid and blood samples, and microbiologic and molecular methods were performed to obtain a definitive identification of the algae. The affected cow was culled only after confirmation of a systemic infection by Prototheca.

Natural Coinfection with 2 Parvovirus Variants in Dog

To the Editor: Canine parvovirus (CPV) emerged in the late 1970s, presumably by mutations in feline panleukopenia virus, and became a major viral pathogen of dogs worldwide (1). Between 1979 and 1981, the original type 2 virus (CPV-2) was replaced by a new genetic and antigenic variant, type 2a (CPV-2a). Between 1983 and 1984, CPV-2a was replaced by type 2b (CPV-2b), which differs from type 2a by only 1 epitope located at residue 426 of the VP2 capsid protein (2). CPV-2 does not replicate in cats, but the new variants replicate in dogs and cats (3). Recently, an antigenic change has been observed in a new strain, CPV-2c, isolated from domestic dogs in Italy (4). This variant was also detected in Vietnam (5), other countries in Europe (6), and the United States (7). CPV-2c was recently detected in cats (8) and is characterized by a replacement of aspartic acid with glutamic acid at residue 426 of the VP2 capsid protein. To identify CPV types 2, 2a, and 2b, PCR methods were developed (9). However, these methods could not distinguish type 2c from type 2b (4). Consequently, we used a PCR–restriction fragment-length polymorphism (RFLP) assay with endonuclease MboII. This enzyme can distinguish type 2c from other CPVs (4). Recently, a real-time PCR assay based on minor groove binder (MGB) probe technology was developed for rapid identification and characterization of the antigenic variants. This assay is based on 1 nucleotide polymorphism in the VP2 gene (10). In June 2006, a 10-week-old female dog (PT-32/07) was brought to the veterinary clinic in Figueira da Foz, Portugal, with clinical signs of parvovirus infection, after an episode of gastrointestinal disease in her littermates. Three littermates, also brought to the clinic, showed no signs of infection. None of the dogs were vaccinated against CPV. Clinical signs in dog PT-32/07 were lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, and a temperature of 39.3°C. Identical signs were observed in 1 littermate 3 days later; the 2 other dogs did not show any signs other than lethargy and loose stools. Rectal swab samples from all dogs were screened for CPV by using an immunomigration rapid test (Synbiotics Corporation, Lyon, France). Two of the dogs showed negative results, and 2 showed positive results. Feces, serum, and lingual swab samples were positive for parvovirus DNA. DNA was quantified by using a real-time PCR with TaqMan technology performed in an i-Cycler iQ (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Milan, Italy). CPV variants were characterized by using MGB probe technology. This technology uses type-specific probes labeled with different fluorophores (FAM and VIC) that can detect single nucleotide polymorphisms between CPV types 2a/2b and 2b/2c (10). MGB probes specific for type 2b were labeled with FAM in both type 2a/2b and 2b/2c assays, and MGB probes specific for type 2a (type 2a/2b assay) and type 2c (type 2b/2c assay) were labeled with VIC. All specimens from 1 dog (PT-32/07) were positive for the 2 variants of CPV type 2 (CPV 2b and CPV 2c). Conversely, of the 3 littermates, 2 were positive for CPV type 2b and 1 was positive for CPV type 2c in all samples (Table). Table Detection by minor groove binder probe assay of CPV antigenic variants in different specimens from dogs from the same litter (10 weeks old), Portugal, 2006* A conventional PCR and RFLP analyses were performed by using the method of Buonavoglia et al. (4) with known positive CPV-2b and CPV-2c samples as controls to confirm our findings. The 583-bp PCR product obtained from the coinfected dog by using primer pair 555for/555rev was digested with MboII. Digestion generated 2 fragments (≈500 and 80 bp) in all dog samples. The CPV-2c control sample showed 2 fragments (≈500 and 80 bp), and CPV-2b control sample was not digested with MboII. We report CPV-2b and CPV-2c variants in samples from a dog with littermates that were positive for CPV-2b or CPV-2c during an episode of gastrointestinal disease. Coinfection with multiple CPV variants that showed high genetic diversity in the VP2 gene has recently been reported in a domestic cat (8). Continuous and rapid evolution of CPV may cause serious problems in diagnostic testing and vaccine efficacy. Antigenic variation may negatively affect vaccine efficacy if changes occur at major antigenic sites. Thus, continuous monitoring for novel genetic and antigenic virus types is needed. Additional studies are in progress to characterize nucleotide sequences of all CPV isolates from this case.

Detection of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) in nonspecific vertebrate hosts sympatric to the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Since its detection in China in 1984, rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) has been the subject of numerous studies. Yet, the evolutionary origin of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) is still under debate. For example, some aspects related to the epidemiology of the disease are still unknown, such as where the virus is hosted between RHD outbreaks. To detect the presence of RHDV in rabbit-sympatric micromammals, 51 rodents (29 Mus spretus and 22 Apodemus sylvaticus) and 31 rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from the same location in central Spain were analyzed. In those samples in which the virus was detected, a fragment of the VP60 protein gene from the RHDV capsid was sequenced and the phylogenetic relationships between them and other strains of RHDV in the Iberian Peninsula were analyzed. In total, five viral strains were identified in A. sylvaticus, M. spretus and O. cuniculus. All strains were found to be well supported within the clade of RHDV found in rabbits in the Iberian Peninsula. Moreover, one of the strains was found in all three species under study, which suggests the capability of RHDV to infect other mammals apart from the rabbit which have not yet been investigated. The transmission of the virus is discussed as well as its ecoepidemiological implications.

Phenotypic characterization of mastitic Prototheca spp. isolates

Bovine mastitis associated with Prototheca is considered a rare pathology, but is increasing in prevalence all over the world and therefore becoming more relevant to the dairy industry. The biochemical characterization of 47 Prototheca isolates retrieved from mastitic milk was performed in this study using API 20C Aux and two BBL Crystal Kits, followed by an analysis with InforBio software. The usage of this methodology, allowed the identification of discriminative phenotypic characteristics for the strains tested. The differential-character-finding algorithm used by this software permitted the identification of new phenotypic characteristics to discriminate between Prototheca zopfii, P. blaschkeae and P. wickerhamii, such as, citrate, phosphorycholine and arabinoside. The main objective of this study was to determine new phenotypic characteristics that allowed a better characterization of Prototheca spp. Usage of recent bioinformatic tools improved the analyses of several features that are important for a better characterization of Prototheca spp.

In Vitro Susceptibility of Prototheca to pH and Salt Concentration

Prototheca sp. can assume high economic significance in the dairy industry and pose a potential risk for the public health. We investigated the in vitro susceptibility of Prototheca isolates retrieved from mastitic milk (P. zopfii and P. blaschkeae) to different pH buffers and salt concentrations using a microbroth assay adapted from the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Different pH buffer solutions ranging from pH 1 to pH 12 and different sodium chloride concentrations, 4.5, 9 and 18%, were tested. P. zopfii strains presented an optimal growth between pH 5 and 9, a complete growth inhibition at pH 3, and limited growth at pH 1 and 12, whereas P. blaschkeae strains showed higher susceptibility to all pH values except for pH 3 where it demonstrated a moderate growth when compared to P. zopfii strains. When salinity was incremented, P. blaschkeae was more resistant than P. zopfii, although a reduction in growth for all strains of Prototheca was observed. This study demonstrated differences in the in vitro susceptibilities of P. zopfii and P. blaschkeae to different pH and salt concentrations and intend to be a contribution on the understanding of some of the physiologic features that can be associated with the survival of these microalgae in the environment.