Eligar Sadeh

A failure of international space cooperation: the International Earth Observing System

Abstract This paper examines the failure of the Earth Observation International Coordination Working Group to implement an International Earth Observation System. Tracing the history of both the Group and the mission concept, it explains the political and organizational failures that took place. It shows that these failures were linked to different approaches to international cooperation in Earth observation data policy. The main points of contention existed between Working Group members, NASA and ESA. NASA favored formal and binding legal arrangements, while ESA preferred to avoid institutionalized legal commitments. Success in coordinating and harmonizing data policy on a multilateral basis for Earth observation missions is more likely to be achieved by pursuing agreement on general principles and terms of reference than by seeking specific legal agreements.

Towards a National Space Strategy

The National Space Strategy Project is an effort led by Astroconsulting International, The Secure World Foundation, The Space Policy Institute, and the National Space Studies Center to identify and assess issues surrounding the development of a space strategy relevant to the United States. This project endeavors to establish intellectual foundations and concepts that will enable an eventual space strategy to be developed. Over the last several years, multiple ‘‘blue ribbon panels’’ and commissions concluded that the United States can benefit from a national space strategy. The purpose of strategy is to coordinate, integrate, and prioritize the space activities of the United States across security, commercial, and civil sectors. Without strategy, space activities continue to provide great value, but remain removed from the overall strategic picture of the United States, and it becomes increasingly difficult to identify and execute long-term programs, projects, and goals. Optimizing the use of space for security, economic, civil, and environmental ends is essential, as dependence on and use of space is accelerating, and space is increasingly integrated in the fabric of activities across all these sectors. This Project Report, Towards aNational Space Strategy, summarizes the discussions and initial thoughts on developing aNational Space Strategy for theUnited States generated by a group of experts who attended a workshop held 4–5 February 2010, at the Space Policy Institute in Washington, DC. A number of topics critical to development of a national space strategywere identified anddivided into three parts: (1) intellectual foundations; (2) political challenges; and (3) specific issues that crosscut security, commercial, and civil space, including space launch capabilities, space program and project development, strategic management and capabilities, space industrial base, Earth observations, space assurance, space governance, and the implications of international space strategies.

Viewpoint: The Evolution of Access to Space as an Idea and Technology

The focus of this paper is on the evolution of access to space from its beginnings as an idea to its implementation as a usable technology. This evolution takes place through the policy process that encompasses agenda setting, formulation, implementation and change. Agenda-setting is where the idea for access to space emerges. Formulation concerns the concepts and policies that then allow for implementation of launch vehicle technology. Implementation generates specific outcomes. These outcomes are initially characterized by rapid technological innovation followed by a steady state of development. The path of development is one of how access to space became wedded to national security. Changes occur as commerce and economics begin to play a role in access to space. The policy process evolves through the actions of the pertinent actors. An examination of the ways in which these pertinent actors interpreted, formulated and implemented the idea and technology of access to space is discussed. The interactions among actors take place on the basis of political, organizational and technical decisions that actors make in regard to access to space.

Harmonization of Earth Observation Data: Global Change and Collective Action Conflict

ABSTRACT Earth observation by satellites is the basis for integrated scientific assessment of global environmental change. Institutional arrangements to coordinate Earth observation data collection efforts recognize harmonization as essential for the scientific assessments that are sought. The goal of harmonization is to achieve compatibility of data polices among the various Earth observation science missions. In this article, I discuss the concept of harmonization and evaluate how Earth observation data policies influence the implementation of harmonization through an examination of a number of relevant actors, strategies, and systems. This includes the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, the Integrated Global Observing Strategy, the former International Earth Observing System, the Group on Earth Observations, the Global Earth Observation System-of-Systems, and the Earth observation programs in the United States and Europe. The results of this study indicate that the problem for realizing an optimal harmonization lies in the differing preferences among actors as to how harmonization is formulated and then implemented. A number of recommendations are put forward here that can ameliorate the problems concerning the implementation of harmonization.

Technical Feasibility Assessment of Lunar Base Mission Scenarios

Investigation of the literature pertaining to lunar base (LB) missions and the technologies required for LB development has revealed an information gap that hinders technical feasibility assessment. This information gap is the absence of technical readiness levels (TRL) (Mankins, 1995) and information pertaining to the criticality of the critical enabling technologies (CETs) that enable mission success. TRL is a means of identifying technical readiness stages of a technology. Criticality is defined as the level of influence the CET has on the mission scenario. The hypothesis of this research study is that technical feasibility is a function of technical readiness and technical readiness is a function of criticality. A newly developed research analysis method is used to identify the technical feasibility of LB mission scenarios. A Delphi is used to ascertain technical readiness levels and CET criticality‐to‐mission. The research analysis method is applied to the Delphi results to determine the technical fe...

International Space Cooperation

The future of international space cooperation will be based not only on the policy and functional preferences of states as discussed herein, but also on market factors. Space cooperation is evolving to include significant cooperative commercial space relations133. Future research on international space cooperation will undoubtedly have to explicitly consider market factors and globalization processes. These aspects are represented today by the emergence of a multinational and transnational space industry that was discussed in the previous chapters on Space Commerce and Space Business.

Human Mission from Planet Earth: finding a rationale for exploration of the Moon and Mars

Abstract This paper advances scenarios for an evolutionary approach to the establishment of a Human Mission from Planet Earth involving exploration and utilization of the Moon and Mars. Of critical importance are the concepts of robotic–human and Moon–Mars synergies. The paper discusses the rationale variables that have an influence on types of space activities pursued and thus the policy that leads to particular scenarios. In this regard, the technological, scientific, and sociopolitical/socioeconomic impacts and consequences related to a Human Mission from Planet Earth are examined.

Dynamics of the Indian Space Program: Doctrine, Power, Strategy, Security, Policy, Law, Commercialization, and Technology

Today, India is a considerable spacefaring state and an emergent space power. With the inception of the Indian space program in the 1960s, the focus was on making use of space assets on-orbit, primarily in the areas of telecommunications and remote sensing, to advance civil development in the country. This focus was realized and to the present serves as a model for developing states and space programs to emulate. Beginning in the 1990s, growing capabilities and capacities led to a broadening of space activities. This includes medium to heavy lift space launch vehicles, more advanced telecommunications and remote sensing satellites, Earth observation platforms, scientific satellites and projects to the Moon and Mars, a regional navigation and timing space-based capability, national security space missions, reusable launch vehicle technologies, and a planned agenda for human spaceflight. These activities developed indigenously given geopolitics and technology sanctions regimes on India that were in place until 2004. The indigenous development illustrates the national prowess of India in scientific and technological know-how. Development in India’s space program took place though national, government-centric efforts led by the establishment of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1969 and the Department of Space (DOS) in 1972. One important result of these efforts was the establishment of a robust space industrial base. On this basis, India pursued the commercialization of space activities. This began in the early 1990s with the incorporation of Antrix Corporation Limited, a government company, though the transition from a more government-centric space program to one with significant commercialization is an ongoing process. A second result is the recognition for strategy, policy, and law to more optimally advance India’s space program. Despite ISRO, DOS, and India’s ratification and adherence to norms and principles of international space law and the Outer Space Treaty (OST) regime, national policy and law, in particular, have not kept pace adequately with Indian space activities. As of 2016, India formulated only a satellite communication policy and a remote sensing

Reforms of Export Controls of Space Systems

This report on Reforms of Export Controls of Space Systems is based on meetings and interviews held in December 2014 with the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) and the Office of National Security and Technology Transfers Controls therein. This was held on the basis of non-attribution to any of the individuals involved from the Department of Commerce, and the conclusions highlighted in the following are solely the views and interpretations of Eligar Sadeh.

Workshop Summary and Conclusions: Export Controls of Space Systems

This report is a follow-up to the previous review of the workshop on export controls of space systems. The focus is on key points put forward at the workshop and concluding observations.