Elina Haavio-Mannila

Correlates of Increased Sexual Satisfaction

Comparisons of nationally representative survey data of the population ages 18–54 years in 1971 (N = 2252) and 1992 (N = 1718) from Finland show that sexual satisfaction has greatly increased particularly among women. Some predictors of sexual satisfaction of men and women are examined on the basis of the 1992 survey data on people ages 18–74 years (N = 2250). Correlations between social background factors, sexual ideas and assertiveness, optional relationships, sexual practices, orgasm, and satisfaction with sexual intercourse were calculated. To control the simultaneous effect of the variables explaining satisfaction, path analyses were conducted. Results show that young age, a sexually unreserved and a nonreligious childhood home, early start of sexual life, high education, sexual assertiveness, considering sexuality important in life, reciprocal feeling of love, use of sex materials, frequent intercourse, many-sided (versatile) sexual techniques, and frequent orgasm correlate with finding sexual intercourse pleasurable. There were some gender differences in the connections between the independent factors and satisfaction with coitus. The importance of sexuality in life, love, and the use of sexual materials were connected directly to physical sexual satisfaction among men but only indirectly among women. For women, but not for men, young age and early start of sexual life correlated with enjoyment of intercourse. The greater sexual dissatisfaction of women compared to men, which still prevails, may be due to their late start of sexual life, conservative sexual attitudes, unimportance of sexuality in life, lack of sexual assertiveness, and use of restricted sexual techniques. The emancipation of women may change these ideas and practices of women. This might lessen the gender gap in physical sexual satisfaction.

The impact of aging on human sexual activity and sexual desire.

This article empirically studies how much aging modifies human sexual activity and sexual desire, and what the most important determinants in this change are. The analyses are based on 2 representative national sex surveys conducted in Finland in the 1990s. As a result of female widowhood, aging men had a higher incidence of sexual intercourse compared with aging women; and in relationships, women were more likely than men to report lack of sexual desire. In regression analysis, age was a predictor of sexual activity but not of sexual desire, when controlling for the impact of other factors. Relationship duration did not play an important role in sexual activity or sexual desire when controlling for a number of other variables. Sexual desire, valuing sexuality, and a healthy partner were important to female sexual activity; and high sexual self-esteem, good health, and active sexual history were important to male sexual activity. To keep up their sexual desire, both men and women needed good health, good sexual functioning, positive sexual self-esteem, and a sexually skilful partner.

Inequalities in health and gender

Gender inequalities in health are studied in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden on the basis of survey data on morbidity and symptoms of anxiety, and of mental hospitalization statistics. Women have higher rates of illness than men in countries where, and in periods when, they have to a great extent stayed at home as full-time housewives. Participation in paid economic activity and the resulting economical independence thus seems to be beneficial to womens health on the macro-level of society. On the micro-level of individual families, inequality in morbidity by gender is smaller in families with two economical providers than in families where the wife stays at home. The anxiety rates of employed wives are, however, relatively high compared with those of men and non-employed wives. Only in Sweden is the mental health of employed wives good, perhaps because of supportive social policies favouring womens work outside the home. The strain involved in combining family and work among women thus becomes manifest in the appearance of symptoms of anxiety but not in physical morbidity nor mental hospitalization.

Single and Double Sexual Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg

The sexual revolution and fight for gender equality began in the West during the 1960s but did not reach the Soviet Union until the late 1980s. Using survey data from nationally representative samples from Finland in 1971, 1992, and 1999 and from two former Soviet areas, Estonia in 2000 and St. Petersburg in 1996, we investigated the following: (a) differences across decades and countries in acceptance of the sexual double standard (SDS) in attitudes toward marital infidelity and womens initiating sex; and (b) the relationship between the SDS and sexual satisfaction. Results show that Finland in the 1990s was more egalitarian than Finland in 1971, St. Petersburg in 1996, or Estonia in 2000. Egalitarian sexual attitudes were positively related to sexual satisfaction.

Slimness and self‐rated sexual attractiveness: Comparisons of men and women in two cultures

The relationship between body mass index (BMI) and self‐rated sexual attractiveness was studied on the basis of representative surveys of adult populations in Finland and in St. Petersburg in order to find out whether the body ideals related to sexuality differ in the two cultures. Data were analyzed by calculating correlations and by conducting regression analyses. In both countries, the connection between BMI and sexual attractiveness was stronger for women than men. St. Petersburg men were the only group in which thin people did not rate themselves as sexually more attractive than corpulent people. Regression analyses showed that (a) the impact of BMI on sexual attractiveness was not totally caused by the controlling variable age; (b) the hypothesized mediating variables, sexual activity and satisfaction, did not diminish the relationship between BMI and sexual attractiveness; and (c) the relationship was stronger in Finland than in St. Petersburg.

Sexual health among young adults in Finland: Assessing risk and protective behaviour through a general health survey

Objective: To describe the extent of sexual risk and protective behaviours and reproductive health outcomes comparing men and women of 18—29 and assess the demographic correlates of these indicators within genders. Design: A module of questions on sexual behaviour and reproductive health outcomes was integrated into a population-based general health survey in Finland. Methods: A representative sample of people over 17, including 1,894 individuals between 18 and 29 years, was drawn from the population registry in 2001. Individual interviews and self-administered questionnaires were used with a response rate of 79% for the interview and 68% for the questionnaire. Results: It was more common for younger men to stay single and have multiple partners while women of the same age were cohabiting or married and chose a regular sex partner. The mean number of sexual partner for men was 5.0 (SD 5.1) and for women 3.4 (SD 2.1). Besides higher prevalence of multiple partners, men reported also casual sex contacts more often than women, 33% vs. 20%. Both genders reported relatively high and concordant rates of contraception use. However, in casual sex contacts a condom was used consistently only by less than half of both sexes. Marital status was the strongest predictor for behaviour and health outcomes. Conclusions: Casual sex is common among young adults in Finland and often occurs without a condom. This study shows that it is feasible to incorporate sexual behaviour questions as part of a larger health survey offering an option for monitoring sexual behaviour when funding for large-scale HIV surveys is decreasing.

Risk factors for induced abortions in St Petersburg, Estonia and Finland. Results from surveys among women of reproductive age

Objectives To compare the risk factors of self-reported abortion in St Petersburg, Estonia and Finland, which are neighbouring areas having different abortion rates. Methods Data from four population-based questionnaire surveys (Finland 1992 and 1999; St Petersburg 2003; Estonia 2004) were used. With the exception of the 1992 Finnish survey (based on interviews) all were postal surveys. There were 1070 respondents in Finland (78% and 52% response rates), 1147 (68%) in St Petersburg, and 5190 (54%) in Estonia. Results The prevalence of self-reported abortions was highest among women in St Petersburg and among the two oldest age groups of Russian-speaking Estonians. In all areas women with a history of abortion were more likely to have low education, children, a history of multiple partners and to have had their first intercourse when younger than 18 years. Insufficient use of reliable contraception, both at first and last intercourse, was the only risk factor that was more common in St Petersburg and in Estonia than in Finland. In Estonia, more Estonian than Russian-speaking women used reliable contraceptives. Conclusion The comparison of three areas suggests that high abortion rates are related to low contraceptive use and not to other risky sexual behaviour.

Social Linkages Used by Migrant and Nonmigrant Families in Solving Health, Work and Economic Problems

One of the many consequences of industrialization is the increased migration to new environments. While much of the flow of population is from rural to urban areas, there is also substantial movement from smalier cities to larger ones and some from one country to another. The social organization in these new surroundings may differ considerably from that of the familys place of origin. In a modem society the division of labour between institutions is highly differentiated. Families are obliged to rely on more numerous and more complicated bureaucratic institutions to satisfy the needs of their members than was the case in traditional society. What does a family do when it faces a problematic situation for which it requires solutions with outside help or support? For example, what happens when a member of a family falls ill, has to find a job, or to borrow money? What are the linkage mechanisms outside the immediate family which people in a modern society can and do rely on? Is there a difference between traditional and modem ways to handle similar problem situations? Do families need time to get accustomed to the organizations characteristic of urban societies when migrating from the rural areas? What are the special difficulties in problem-solving facing immigrant families crossing a national border? What social background factors affect the ability of the families to solve their problems? Do these background factors differ among the migrant and nonmigrant families? These are some of the questions the Cross-National Research Studies on the Family directed by Marvin E. Sussman was designed to answer. The life sectors selected in which to study the formal and informal linkages used and the competence to handle family problematic situations Finland and Sweden are (1) health and welfare, (2) work, and (3) family economy. Competence is here defined as a combination of (1) actual use of services or linkages in family problems and (2) knowledge of existing possibilities to get help in difficult situations. It is not certain that actual use

Sexuality and Family Formation

In this chapter, we compare key areas affecting sexuality and family formation in six European regions. We have attempted to retain internal divisions especially in Eastern Europe, which are often overlooked. Nevertheless, our results point to the continuing relevance of the East−West division. We compare different indicators in the Nordic, Western, Eastern Central European, and Eastern Mediterranean European countries as well as the former Soviet Union countries. The data were collected from international statistics and comparative surveys conducted in the early 21st century. While many countries are showing signs of converging development, Europe is still divided by the classic, “vertical” Trieste-Petersburg line. Early entry into parenthood and quasi-universal marriage rates are more common East of this line, while later entry into parenthood but also fertility rates characterise the Western part. Additionally, three horizontal “belts” of family formations emphasise gender equality in the North, individual autonomy in Central Europe, and traditional family values in the South. There are crucial tensions between each of these three concepts: freedom, tradition, and gender equality. Complete sexual freedom may be opposed to gender equality, while great marital and reproductive choice does not always lead to stable and traditional families.

The socio-demographic patterning of sexual risk behaviour: a survey of young men in Finland and Estonia

BackgroundSexually transmitted infections (STIs) among the youth are an increasing challenge for public health in Europe. This study provided estimates of mens (18–25 years) sexual risk behaviour and self-reported STIs and their socio-demographic patterning in Finland and Estonia; two countries that are geographically close, but have very different STI epidemics.MethodNationally representative cross-sectional population surveys with comparable survey questions were used. Data from self-administered questionnaires for 1765 men aged 18–25 years in Finland (85% of the age cohort was included in the sampling frame, 95% of the sample responded) and 748 in Estonia, with a response rate of 43% respectively, were analysed. Socio-demographic patterning of multiple partners, condom use and self-reported STIs are presented was studied using multiple logistic regression analysis.ResultsThe main findings focus on associations found within each country. In Finland, higher age, low education and to a lesser extent relationship with a non-steady partner increased the likelihood of reporting multiple lifetime-partners, while in Estonia only higher age and low education revealed this effect. In relation to unprotected intercourse, in Finland, higher age, low education and relationship status with a steady partner increased the likelihood of reporting unprotected intercourse. In Estonia, the same was observed only for relationship status. In Finland the likelihood of self-reported STIs increased by older age and lower education and decreased by being with a non-steady partner, while in Estonia, a non-significant increase in self-reported STIs was observed only in the older age group.ConclusionA clear socio-demographic patterning for sexual behaviour and self-reported STIs was revealed in Finland, but a less consistent trend was seen in Estonia. The findings of this study suggest that prevention strategies should focus in Finland on less educated singles and in Estonia on young men generally.