Eliza S. Calder

Growth of the lava dome and extrusion rates at Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, West Indies: 2005–2008

[1]xa0The third episode of lava dome growth at Soufriere Hills Volcano began 1 August 2005 and ended 20 April 2007. Volumes of the dome and talus produced were measured using a photo-based method with a calibrated camera for increased accuracy. The total dense rock equivalent (DRE) volume of extruded andesite magma (306 ± 51 Mm3) was similar within error to that produced in the earlier episodes but the average extrusion rate was 5.6 ± 0.9 m3s−1 (DRE), higher than the previous episodes. Extrusion rates varied in a pulsatory manner from <0.5 m3s−1 to ∼20 m3s−1. On 18 May 2006, the lava dome had reached a volume of 85 Mm3 DRE and it was removed in its entirety during a massive dome collapse on 20 May 2006. Extrusion began again almost immediately and built a dome of 170 Mm3 DRE with a summit height 1047 m above sea level by 4 April 2007. There were few moderate-sized dome collapses (1–10 Mm3) during this extrusive episode in contrast to the first episode of dome growth in 1995–8 when they were numerous. The first and third episodes of dome growth showed a similar pattern of low (<0.5 m3s−1) but increasing magma flux during the early stages, with steady high flux after extrusion of ∼25 Mm3.

Correlations between SO2 flux, seismicity, and outgassing activity at the open vent of Villarrica volcano, Chile

[1]xa0The characteristics of the open vent activity of Villarrica volcano, Chile, were studied in detail by integrating visual observations of the lava lake, analysis of the seismic tremor, and measurements of SO2 flux. The outgassing activity comprises a persistent gas plume emission from the bottom of the crater as well as frequent explosive events. Three main styles of bubble bursting were identified at the surface of the active lava lake: seething magma, small short-lived lava fountains, and Strombolian explosions. Seething magma consists of continual burst of relatively small bubbles (a few meters in diameter) with varying strength over the entire surface of the lava lake. Small lava fountains, seen as a vigorous extension of seething magma, commonly have durations of 20–120 s and reach 10–40 m high above the lava lake. Correlations between seismicity and visual observations indicate that the seismic tremor is mostly caused by the explosive outgassing activity. Furthermore, for different periods between 2000 and 2006, during which the activity remained comparable, the real-time seismic amplitude measurement system (RSAM) and SO2 emission rates show a very good correlation. Higher SO2 emissions appeared to be related to higher levels of the lava lake, stronger bubble bursting activity, and changes in the morphology and texture of the crater floor. Background (low) levels of activity correspond to a lava lake located >80 m below the crater rim, small and/or blocky morphology of the roof, seismic amplitude (RSAM) lower than 25 units, few volcano-tectonic earthquakes, and daily averages of SO2 emissions lower than 600 Mg/d.

Lava production at Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat: 1995-2009

[1]xa0We estimate that about 1 km3 of andesitic lava has been produced at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 1995 to 2009. There were three major episodes of extrusion, each lasting about 2 to 3.5 years and producing about 280 to 340 M m3 of lava, and one minor episode. Our estimates account for the dense rock equivalent volumetric contributions from the core and talus components of the lava dome, pyroclastic flow deposits and air-fall deposits. By 2005 at least two thirds of the erupted mass has already entered the sea. The average lava flux across the major extrusion episodes has been 3–5 m3s−1, with short-period (10–15 days) pulses up to 10–20 m3s−1. The first and third episodes of extrusion show similar flux histories suggesting similar behaviour of the system ten years apart. Waning flux towards the end of each episode may be caused by declining overpressure in the magma reservoir.

Using Statistical and Computer Models to Quantify Volcanic Hazards

Risk assessment of rare natural hazards, such as large volcanic block and ash or pyroclastic flows, is addressed. Assessment is approached through a combination of computer modeling, statistical modeling, and extreme-event probability computation. A computer model of the natural hazard is used to provide the needed extrapolation to unseen parts of the hazard space. Statistical modeling of the available data is needed to determine the initializing distribution for exercising the computer model. In dealing with rare events, direct simulations involving the computer model are prohibitively expensive. The solution instead requires a combination of adaptive design of computer model approximations (emulators) and rare event simulation. The techniques that are developed for risk assessment are illustrated on a test-bed example involving volcanic flow.

Constraints on the rates of degassing and convection in basaltic open-vent volcanoes

Variations in gas emissions of open-vent volcanoes are investigated using a model of magma convection in narrow conduits. Laboratory experiments with both vertical and inclined conduits and dimensional analysis show that for Grashof numbers lower than 100 the volumetric rate of magma ascent is a simple function of equivalent conduit radius, density difference between the magmas, and viscosity of the degassed magma that descends back to the reservoir. The rate of magma ascent depends on the flux coefficient, estimated as 0.1 and 0.2 for vertical and inclined conduits, respectively. The equivalent radius parameter accounts for the dimensions of the conduit(s) regardless of its geometry, thus extending the treatment by previous models that used flow in pipes. The volume flow rate of convection increases with higher density difference and conduit size, but is also highly influenced by the large variations in viscosity of the degassed magma as volatile content and crystallinity change. The model presented here can be used to constrain the degassing and ascent rates of volatile-rich magma when combined with petrologic data on magmatic volatile content. Application of the model to Villarrica volcano (Chile) reveals that the background degassing levels observed (∼3 kg s−1 SO2) are associated with convective ascent of a relatively degassed magma (0.04 wt% S, ∼0.5 wt% H2O), while episodes of higher SO2 emissions (measurements up to 15 kg s−1) can be explained by the ascent of magma with higher volatile content (up to 0.09 wt% S, ∼1.5 wt% H2O).

The association of lava dome growth with major explosive activity (VEI ≥ 4): DomeHaz, a global dataset

Investigation of the global eruptive records of particular types of volcanoes is a fundamental and valuable method of understanding what style of activity can be anticipated in the future and can highlight what might be expected or unusual in particular settings. This paper investigates the relationship between large explosions (volcanic explosivity index, VEIu2009≥u20094) and lava dome growth from 1000xa0AD to present and develops the DomeHaz database. DomeHaz contains information from 397 dome-forming episodes, including duration of dome growth, duration of pauses in extrusion, extrusion rates, and the timing and magnitude (VEI) of associated large explosions. Major explosive activity, when associated with dome growth, is more likely to occur before dome growth rather than during, or at the end of, dome-forming eruptions. In most cases where major explosive activity has been associated with dome growth, the eruptions occurred at basaltic andesite to andesitic volcanoes (the most common type of dome-forming volcano), but a greater proportion of dacitic and rhyolitic dome growth episodes were associated with large explosions. High extrusion rates (>10xa0m3xa0s−1) seem to be associated with large explosions and may inhibit degassing or destabilize existing domes, leading to explosive decompression. Large explosions may, alternatively, be followed by dome growth, which represents the clearing of residual magma from the conduit. Relationships extracted from the global record can be used to construct probability trees for new and ongoing dome-forming eruptions or can be used in conjunction with other types of event trees to aid in forecasting volcanic hazards during a crisis, especially for volcanoes where data are sparse.

Lava Dome Eruptions

Lava domes form during volcanic eruptions in which highly viscous magma accumulates in the near-vent region. During this activity, gas pressure build up in the lava dome or shallow conduit region can destabilize the structure and trigger transitions to explosive eruptions or lava dome collapse. In this chapter we introduce lava dome eruptive activity as well as details of recent, well-monitored lava dome eruptions at Mount St Helens (USA), Soufriere Hills (Montserrat), and Chaiten (Chile). We then discuss dome emplacement and the influence of rheological factors such as silica, crystal, and gas content on the embrittlement of magma and its control on eruption style. Lava domes expose a range of morphologies as well as internal structural features that affects outgassing efficiency, their structural stability, and the generation of associated hazards. We conclude with an overview of hazards commonly associated with lava dome eruptions including dome instability, collapse events, and explosive activity that can cause devastating pyroclastic flows.

Clastic and core lava components of a silicic lava dome

The formation of a lava dome involves fractionation of the lava into core and clastic components. We show that for three separate, successive andesitic lava domes that grew at Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat, between 1999 and 2007, the volumetric proportion of the lava converted to talus or pyroclastic flow deposits was 50%–90% of the lava extruded. Currently, only 8% of the total magma extruded during the 1995–2007 eruption remains as core lava. The equivalent representation in the geological record will probably be even lower. Most of the lava extruded at the surface flowed no further than 150–300 m from the vent before disaggregation, resulting in a lava core whose shape tends to a cylinder. Moderate to high extrusion rates at the Soufriere Hills domes may have contributed to the large clastic fraction observed. Creating talus dissipates much of the energy that would otherwise be stored in the core lava of domes. The extreme hazards from large pyroclastic flows and blasts posed by wholesale collapse of a lava dome depend largely on the size of the lava core, and hence on the aggregate history of the partitioning process, not on the size of the dome.

Post-depositional fracturing and subsidence of pumice flow deposits: Lascar Volcano, Chile

Unconsolidated pyroclastic flow deposits of the 1993 eruption of Lascar Volcano, Chile, have, with time, become increasingly dissected by a network of deeply penetrating fractures. The fracture network comprises orthogonal sets of decimeter-wide linear voids that form a pseudo-polygonal grid visible on the deposit surface. In this work, we combine shallow surface geophysical imaging tools with remote sensing observations and direct field measurements of the deposit to investigate these fractures and their underlying causal mechanisms. Based on ground penetrating radar images, the fractures are observed to have propagated to depths of up to 10xa0m. In addition, orbiting radar interferometry shows that deposit subsidence of up to 1xa0cm/year−1 occurred between 1993 and 1996 with continued subsidence occurring at a slower rate thereafter. In situ measurements show that 1xa0m below the surface, the 1993 deposits remain 5°C to 15°C hotter, 18xa0years after emplacement, than adjacent deposits. Based on the observed subsidence as well as estimated cooling rates, the fractures are inferred to be the combined result of deaeration, thermal contraction, and sedimentary compaction in the months to years following deposition. Significant environmental factors, including regional earthquakes in 1995 and 2007, accelerated settling at punctuated moments in time. The spatially variable fracture pattern relates to surface slope and lithofacies variations as well as substrate lithology. Similar fractures have been reported in other ignimbrites but are generally exposed only in cross section and are often attributed to formation by external forces. Here we suggest that such interpretations should be invoked with caution, and deformation including post-emplacement subsidence and fracturing of loosely packed ash-rich deposits in the months to years post-emplacement is a process inherent in the settling of pyroclastic material.

Friction weakening in granular flows deduced from seismic records at the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat

Accurate modeling of rockfalls and pyroclastic flows is still an open issue, partly due to a lack of measurements related to their dynamics. Using seismic data from the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, and granular flow modeling, we show that the power laws relating the seismic energy E s to the seismic duration t s and relating the loss of potential energy ΔE p to the flow duration t f are very similar, like the power laws observed at Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island. Observations showing that t f ≃ t s suggest a constant ratio E s ∕ΔE p ≃ 10 −5. This similarity in these two power laws can be obtained only when the granular flow model uses a friction coefficient that decreases with the volume transported. Furthermore, with this volume-dependent friction coefficient, the simulated force applied by the flow to the ground correlates well with the seismic energy, highlighting the signature of this friction weakening effect in seismic data.