Elizabeth A. Skowron

The Differentiation of Self Inventory: Development and Initial Validation

Despite the importance of Bowen theory (M.Bowen, 1976,1978; M. E. KerrB Nichols & Schwartz, 1998). Indeed, Bowen theory provides a foundation for the field of family therapy that renders i t distinct from the multitude of theoretica l approaches to individual psychotherapy. At present, many of Bowens (1976, 1978) concepts (e.g., differentiation of self, interlocking triangles , o r reactiv e emotiona l distancing ) pervade th e famil y system s literature . Despit e th e vas t attention Bowen theory has received from clinicians and theorists alike, there have been, to date, few programmatic attempts t o tes t it s validit y wit h respec t t o personalit y functioning or quality of interpersonal relations or to changes as a result of psychotherapy. To begin filling this notable gap, we developed the Differentiation o f Self Inventory, a self-report instrument for adults (ages 25+). In this article, we present psychometric support for the measure, validation studies to date, and implications for theory, research, and practice.

Deconstructing Differentiation: Self Regulation, Interdependent Relating, and Well-Being in Adulthood

This study examined underlying similarities between the Personal Authority in the Family System Questionnaire (PAFS; Bray, Williamson, & Malone, 1984a) and the Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI; Skowron & Friedlander, 1998). Generalized least-squares factor analysis yielded two related factors, Self Regulation and Interdependent Relating, accounting for 60% of the variance in the solution. Greater Self Regulation—comprised of DSI scales characterized by less emotional reactivity and the ability to take an I position in relationships—and Interdependent Relating—marked by greater personal authority, intergenerational intimacy and less intergenerational fusion on the PAFS and less emotional cutoff on the DSI—predicted well-being among both women and men. Implications for family therapy and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Effectiveness of psychological interventions for child maltreatment: a meta-analysis

A meta-analysis tested the effectiveness of psychological treatments for child maltreatment (CM) using weighted least squares methods (e.g., L. V. Hedges & I. Olkin, 1985). A mean effect size of d 0.54 (SE .03, 95% CI .39– .69) was observed, indicating that on average, treated participants were better off than 71% of those in control groups. Partitioning by type and target of outcome assessment yielded homogeneous effects within each of 5 different outcomes. Treatment effects were weakest when linked to objective behavioral observations of the family (d .21) and strongest when associated with parent self-reported parenting attitudes and behaviors (d .53). Results of other moderator analyses are presented, along with limitations of current CM treatment research; implications for future research, practice, and social policy are discussed.

Differentiation, Self-Other Representations, and Rupture-Repair Processes: Predicting Child Maltreatment Risk.

This set of studies was designed to examine the relational underpinnings of child abuse potential in a sample of 51 urban families. In Study 1, lower maternal differentiation of self-most notably, greater emotional reactivity and greater emotional cutoff-along with self-attacking introjects, together distinguished mothers at higher risk (vs. lower risk) for child maltreatment (CM). In Study 2, patterns of interactive rupture and repair were examined in a subsample of n = 15 families and found to vary as a function of risk for CM. Specifically, SASB coding (Benjamin, 1996, 2003) of mother-children interactions during two moderately stressful lab tasks revealed higher rates of interactive mismatch and mother-initiated ruptures, and fewer successful repairs in families at higher-risk-for-CM, relative to families at lower-risk. Implications for counseling and directions for further translational research are discussed.

Effect of Differentiation of Self on Adolescent Risk Behavior: Test of the Theoretical Model

Background: Innovative theoretical models are needed to explain the occurrence of high-risk sexual behaviors, alcohol and other-drug (AOD) use, and academic engagement among ethnically diverse, inner-city adolescents. Objective: The aim of this study was to test the credibility of a theoretical model based on the Bowen family systems theory to explain adolescent risk behavior. Specifically tested was the relationship between the predictor variables of differentiation of self, chronic anxiety, and social problem solving and the dependent variables of high-risk sexual behaviors, AOD use, and academic engagement. Methods: An ex post facto cross-sectional design was used to test the usefulness of the theoretical model. Data were collected from 161 racially/ethnically diverse, inner-city high school students, 14 to 19 years of age. Participants completed self-report written questionnaires, including the Differentiation of Self Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Social Problem Solving for Adolescents, Drug Involvement Scale for Adolescents, and the Sexual Behavior Questionnaire. Results: Consistent with the model, higher levels of differentiation of self related to lower levels of chronic anxiety (p < .001) and higher levels of social problem solving (p < .01). Higher chronic anxiety was related to lower social problem solving (p < .001). A test of mediation showed that chronic anxiety mediates the relationship between differentiation of self and social problem solving (p < .001), indicating that differentiation influences social problem solving through chronic anxiety. Higher levels of social problem solving were related to less drug use (p < .05), less high-risk sexual behaviors (p < .01), and an increase in academic engagement (p < .01). Conclusions: Findings support the theoretical models credibility and provide evidence that differentiation of self is an important cognitive factor that enables adolescents to manage chronic anxiety and motivates them to use effective problem solving, resulting in less involvement in health-comprising behaviors and increased academic engagement.

Psychometric evaluation of the Differentiation of Self Inventory for adolescents.

BackgroundEvidence of psychometric support is needed for use of the Differentiation of Self Inventory with adolescents as a clinical assessment instrument to evaluate psychotherapeutic progress and outcomes, and for its use as a research instrument to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions on the basis of Bowen family systems theory. ObjectiveTo examine the reliability and validity of the 46-item, self-report Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI) for use with adolescents. MethodAn ex post facto research design was used to determine the psychometric properties of the DSI for adolescents, and to test theoretically grounded hypotheses drawn from Bowen theory that linked differentiation of self with chronic anxiety and symptom development. The DSI, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Symptom Pattern Scale were administered to an ethnically diverse sample of 363 adolescents 14 to 19 years of age. ResultsThe DSI full scale demonstrated good internal consistency reliability, with a Cronbachs alpha coefficient of .84. Factor analysis yielded a six-factor structure, representing the multidimensionality of the DSI items among adolescents. As hypothesized, differentiation of self mediated the relation between chronic anxiety and symptom development (p < .001), indicating that greater differentiation of self predicted fewer symptoms over and above chronic anxiety, and lending support to the construct validity of the DSI in adolescent populations. ConclusionsThe results of this study support the use of the DSI with adolescents. Future longitudinal studies are needed for definitive causal conclusions regarding the role that differentiation of self plays as a mediator between the relation of chronic anxiety and symptom development.

Parent Differentiation of Self and Child Competence in Low-Income Urban Families.

In this study, the author examined whether family system functioning was associated with resilience in children exposed to negative environmental stress. In a sample of 55 low-income, urban families, greater differentiation of self among mothers predicted child competence—that is, better verbal and math achievement scores and lower aggression—after considering the effects of neighborhood violence and family life stress. No relations were observed between parent functioning and child academic selfconcept. Furthermore, mothers’ differentiation-of-self scores predicted children’s cognitive skills, even after controlling for parent level of education. Implications, limitations, and directions for further research are discussed. Since counseling psychology’s discovery of the family in the 1980s (Gelso & Fassinger, 1990), interest in children and their families has grown dramatically (e.g., Fitzgerald & Osipow, 1988; Schneider, Watkins, & Gelso, 1988; Walsh, Galassi, Murphy, & Park-Taylor, 2002). In the last decade, instruction in family therapy has become a standard component of doctoral training in counseling psychology programs (Murdock, Alcorn, Heesacker, & Stoltenberg, 1998). Articles focused on children and families appearing in the Journal of Counseling Psychology have more than tripled in the last 20 years (i.e., only 7 articles with the keywords child or family were published from 1980 to 1989, whereas from 1990 to 1999, 40 articles appeared). Recent issues of The Counseling Psychologist on preventing childhood disorders (Romano & Hage, 2000) and promoting school partnerships (Kenny, Waldo, Warter, & Barton, 2002; Walsh et al., 2002) provide further evidence of the field’s interest in and commitment to understanding and working effectively with children and families. The broad purpose of this study was to better understand the relationship between family system functioning and resilience among urban, at-risk children. Urban environmental stress puts children at early risk for learning delays and emotional and behavioral problems (e.g., Attar, Guerra, & Tolan, 1994; Black &

Preschool Children's Cardiac Reactivity Moderates Relations Between Exposure to Family Violence and Emotional Adjustment

This study examined relations between cardiac reactivity, family violence exposure (i.e., child maltreatment [CM] and inter-partner violence [IPV]), and preschool children’s emotional adjustment. A sample of 92 mother–preschooler dyads was drawn from predominantly low-income, rural communities. Dyads participated in a laboratory session in which children’s Electrocardiograph (ECG) monitoring occurred during a resting baseline, joint-challenge, and individual emotional and cognitive tasks. Mothers consented to review of Children & Youth Services (CYS) records for CM and completed an IPV measure. Mothers rated children’s emotional adjustment, and observers rated children on their frustration and positive affect. Children’s vagal suppression was shown to moderate relations between family violence exposure and emotional adjustment. Findings indicated that children greater in vagal suppression showed better emotional adjustment when from families low in violence. However, regardless of children’s level of vagal suppression, all children showed poorer emotional adjustment when from families high in violence.