Elizabeth J. Erling

English at work in Berlin

A report on a survey of seven multinational companies in Germany. Since the 1990s, there has been a dramatic change in the structure of many large European companies. While previously many were ‘particularly solidly established in their countries of origin’ (Truchot 2002:14), they have now become multinational and are less identifiable with a particular country. A case in point is DaimlerChrysler, formed in 1998 through the merger of Daimler-Benz (a German manufacturer of motor vehicles) and the Chrysler Corporation (a US automobile manufacturer). A side effect of the rise of such corporations has been that English has become a key language of international business. This has certainly been true for DaimlerChysler, which has given English official status in the company

The Native Speaker English Teacher and the Politics of Globalization in Japan

In light of the global spread of English and the concomitant growth of the English language teaching industry, there has been much discussion about the ‘ownership of English’ (Widdowson, 1994) and the status of speakers and varieties of the language in its various global contexts. The field of World Englishes has traced the pluralization, change and spread of English and advocated the legitimacy of the different varieties of English that have developed around the globe (Kachru, 1992). While initially undertaken primarily in postcolonial contexts, such studies have now been extended to most national contexts where English is learned as a foreign language, and include an extensive amount of work on the role of English in Japan (e.g. Kubota, 1998; Matsuda, 2003; Moody, 2006; Seargeant, 2009; Stanlaw, 2004, 1992). As the plurality of English in its various contexts has increasingly been recognized, questions have repeatedly been raised about issues such as codification, standardization, categorizations of ‘deviation’ or ‘error’, the validity of the native speaker teacher and the choice of a teaching model (e.g. in Strevens, 1980; Quirk and Widdowson, 1985). While ‘native speakers’ were traditionally touted as ideal language teachers because of assumptions that they inherently possess a superior command of the language and intimate knowledge of English-speaking cultures, the World Englishes paradigm has forced a reconsideration of the role of the native speaker English teacher in contexts such as Japan where the learning of English plays an important role in the school curriculum.

English-in-Education Policy and Planning in Bangladesh: A Critical Examination

This chapter draws on critical perspectives on language policy and planning and language-in-education policy implementation framework to provide an overview of the history of English language education policies, policy implementation and their outcomes in Bangladesh. It traces the factors that have influenced the policies, their implementation and their rather dismal outcomes. The chapter describes the socio-political and sociolinguistic contexts within which Bangladeshi education is located, providing a historical overview of English in education policy from British colonial rule to Pakistani rule to the post-independence period. It then explores the status of English language education within the Bangladeshi education system and describes the various actors that have shaped English language teaching policy and practice within Bangladesh. The section that follows explores policy outcomes and the complex set of factors which have hindered the successful implementation of quality English language teaching in Bangladesh. We draw our conclusion at the end, which also includes a set of recommendations for policy implementation in the country.

Medium of instruction policies in Ghanaian and Indian primary schools: an overview of key issues and recommendations

ABSTRACT This paper reports on a rigorous literature review of research into medium of instruction in Ghana and India, whose language-in-education policies represent two contrasting models of use of local languages and the development of competence in English. The paper begins by briefly overviewing the language-in-education policy in these two countries and sets out the methodological approach underpinning this review. It then turns to the initial findings, which are discussed in two parts: the first categorises the three areas of research explored in the empirical studies reviewed, namely the effectiveness of language-in-education policies, problems hindering the implementation of these policies, and attitudes to these policies. The second provides an overview of the recommendations for how, given the obstacles in implementing the current policies, to better ensure the effectiveness of language-in-education policies in Ghana and India. Together these findings show that similar issues arise that contribute to challenges of providing equitable, quality education, and similar recommendations have been put forward as a result. This paper thus provides a valuable overview of key issues in the role of language-in-education policies in improving equity and quality in education in LMICs.

English in rural Bangladesh: how is language education perceived as a resource for development in rural communities?

Englishs elevated status within a global economy of languages means that English-language education is increasingly promoted in international development initiatives in countries such as Bangladesh. This is partly due to a growing conviction that English is able to play an important role in helping people participate in global economic markets from which they have previously been excluded (Seargeant & Erling, 2011). Despite the strong associations made between English-language ability and development, there is at present only limited evidence showing a causal relationship between the two (Erling, forthcoming), while a complex of other issues surrounding the cultural politics of the language also play a role in the social implications of its promotion in such contexts. The aim of this article is to examine how English is perceived in rural Bangladesh by the people at whom such international development programmes are targeted. A broad assumption of such programmes is that English is a positive and, in some sense, necessary resource for development. The article investigates whether this matches the perception of those at whom such projects are aimed, and what it is that these communities feel the language can offer both in practical and in socio-cultural terms for the developmental challenges they face. In order to examine these questions the article draws on results from an ethnographical survey of two rural areas in Bangladesh which investigated the attitudes and aspirations of local community members to the potential impact of English-language education on their social prospects and cultural identities.

The communicative needs of Bangladeshi economic migrants: The functional values of host country languages versus English as a lingua franca

Abstract This article investigates the language skills and the nature of language provision required by economic migrants from Bangladesh working in the Middle East. It focuses in particular on the perceived values of the host country language (Arabic) versus English as a language franca (ELF). While there have been a number of explorations of the value of learning the host country language for migrants in terms of both labour market outcomes and wellbeing, there is a paucity of, and pressing need for, studies investigating the value of ELF for economic migrants, particularly those from developing country contexts. This article presents the findings from an ethnographic study which explores the experiences, perceptions and specific language-related issues of a diverse cohort of returnee migrants from rural Bangladesh where, despite significant migration from the area, little is known about this population’s language use and communicative needs. Our findings suggest that both the host country language (Arabic) and ELF have important functional values, but that these vary depending on interlocutors, domains of work and contexts of situation, as well as on the relative statuses (within an ecology of global linguistic value) of the two languages in different contexts. The analysis thus provides fresh and significant evidence regarding the role of language in economic migration and development for low-skilled migrants, both to and from contexts in which English has no official status. The article concludes by considering the implications for the types of language education which might be most suitable for these and other economic migrants in comparable contexts.

Language planning, English language education and development aid in Bangladesh

ABSTRACT The increased status of English as the language of international communication and business has meant that development aid has increasingly been used to finance language planning initiatives aimed at improving and/or expanding English language education. The intended outcome of this aid is often to provide expanded economic returns and opportunities for those who learn the language. But is it really the case that they receive these benefits? In this paper I attempt to form a deeper understanding of the relationship between English language skills and economic value by providing a meta-analysis and critical evaluation of 11 research studies. By critically evaluating this research using Sen’s capabilities approach [1999. Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press], I find that while English language skills might enhance opportunities for individuals, they also appear to reinforcing embedded inequalities and therefore not necessarily contributing to the well-being of societies. English language education may have limited impact without sufficient political and economic stability. Moreover, there are ongoing and significant needs to develop literacy and numeracy in local and national languages. Equipped with this more nuanced understanding of the value of English, I argue that development aid and language planning initiatives can make more significant contributions to holistic development and social justice.

Making Space for Us: German Graduate Student Voices in English

Abstract This paper presents a study which incorporates the voices of graduate students in English and North American Studies programmes at a German university as they reflect on how they have learned to negotiate between established academic writing conventions and expressing who they are. We find that students foresee several opportunities to write in English in their professional and personal lives and they also employ several strategies to use the language to their own end. But many of these students lack a feeling of ‘belonging’ within the academic community and so believe that they cannot develop an authoritative or authentic ‘voice’ within the university context. In response to this finding, we suggest appropriate teaching practices for advanced second-language writers in English which draw on students’ existing experience, expectations and hopes to help them to assert their voices in English and negotiate their demands for the language.

“Successful” migration, (English) language skills and global inequality: The case of Bangladeshi migrants to the Middle East

Abstract Migration has become a vital element of the Bangladeshi economy, which has led to an increasing focus on providing Bangladeshis with the skills needed on the international labour market. English is often cited as one of these skills, and previous research has shown that a primary reason why Bangladeshis wish to learn English is due to its perceived value for pursuing work abroad (Erling, Elizabeth J., Philip Seargeant, Mike Solly, Qumrul H Chowdhury, & Sayeedur Rahman. 2012. Attitudes to English as a language for international development in rural Bangladesh. London: British Council. Available online at http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/publications/attitudes-english-a-language-international-development-rural-bangladesh.). The extent to which English is of value in economic migration, however, has been underexplored in research (Coleman, Hywel. 2010. The English language in development. London: British Council. Available at http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/publications/english-language-development.). Drawing on data from a qualitative study which provides new insights into the experiences and perceptions of a cohort of returnee migrants, this article investigates the perceived value of (English) language skills for migration. The study finds that economic migrants see the advantages of having particular skills, especially English, for economic gain. However, applying a capabilities lens to their narratives (Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.) reveals the difficulties of classifying their experiences in terms of “success” given the deeply embedded structural issues and challenges the participants report facing. This article therefore questions assumptions that language skills can be transformational when social inequality is (re)produced in the context of migration.