Elizabeth Midlarsky

The generous elderly: Naturalistic studies of donations across the life span.

The relation between age and altruism was examined in two experiments conducted in naturalistic settings. In both studies, individuals from 5 to over 75 years of age had opportunities to donate money to a charity concerned with the welfare of infants with birth defects. The effect of a variable designed to evoke the needs rule was also observed by using both pregnant and nonpregnant charitable solicitors. Results of both studies yielded a significant main effect of solicitor condition on donations. Study 1 yielded a linear increase with age in numbers of people donating; however, retired persons generally donated less money than did younger adults. In Study 2, which controlled for financial costs, elderly persons proved to be the most generous. These results underscore the importance of personal resources and helping opportunities in influencing altruism among older persons.

Empirically derived conceptions of femaleness and maleness: A current view

This study was designed to investigate the nature and type of conceptions of femaleness and maleness that would be generated by blacks and whites in an open-ended questionnaire. Five hundred respondents from 13 vocational schools, community colleges, 4-year colleges, and universities generated 718 conceptions, which were then rated on degree of maleness and femaleness and social desirability by a sample of 297 respondents from that same population. Results indicated that females and males (races combined) and blacks and whites (genders combined) differed significantly in their male-female conceptions scores. Descriptions of the types of conceptions most frequently generated by the respondents are presented and discussed.

Competence and Helping

Although the literature on helping has burgeoned in the past several years, it has primarily emphasized questions regarding motives or activating mechanisms (cf. Hornstein, 1978; Midlarsky & Suda, 1978; Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, & Clark, 1981; Staub, 1978). Yet, like other interpersonal transactions, helping consists of three analytically distinct components: (1) a motive or goal, (2) the behavior, and (3) the consequence(s) (Barton, 1969; Ossorio, 1966). Hence, in addition to the need to investigate the motivational basis of helping acts, one must also bear in mind that altruistic or helpful behaviors may vary in nature, duration, and extensity, and that the consequences of altruistic behavior for both the recipient(s) and the actor may vary as well. In contrast to other efforts, it is proposed here that at a minimum, a model of helping should include all three of the components designated—the motivational antecedens, the behavioral component, and the consequences.

Beyond dependency, autonomy, and exchange: Prosocial behavior in late-life adaptation

This paper focuses on prosocial and altruistic behavior in late life. Empirical data on prevalence of helping behaviors among the elderly and the range of motives underlying their helping are reviewed. The authors consider implications of these data for theories of social behavior in late life. Questions are raised regarding the universal applicability of models of social behavior which have been implicit in much of existing research in social gerontology. Data on helping by the elderly are related to “dependency” and “autonomy” models of social interaction. Futhermore, the potential for altruistic as opposed to extrinsic motivations for helping among older adults is considered, challenging the exclusive reliance on exchange principles for understanding social interactions by older persons. Empirical evidence of prosocial behavior in late life is placed in the context of life-span developmental theories of personality and a contributory model of late life social behavior is proposed.

SOME ANTECEDENTS OF ALTRUISM IN CHILDREN: THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL PERSPECTIVES

This paper outlines the manner in which three theories—evolutionary theory, psychoanalysis and social learning theory—account for the development of altruistic behavior. Explanations by such theorists as Wilson, Campbell, Freud, Aronfreed, and Mowrer are presented, and exploration is made of the degree to which these positions are supported by empirical findings.

Effects of Achievement, Evaluative Feedback, and Locus of Control on Children's Expectations.

Abstract This study was designed to explore the relative influence of two factors on the development of expectations, self-evaluations, and performance by children: high, moderate, or low achievement on a task, and evaluative feedback concerning the childrens performance. Ninety-six fourth- and fifth-grade boys and girls played a pinball game, during which they experienced one of three levels of achievement, and heard either positive or negative evaluations of their performance from E. Also investigated were the effects of locus of control. As predicted, results indicated that expectancies concerning future success were determined both by past achievement and by evaluative feedback. In addition, the results demonstrated that immediate past performance had a stronger relative influence on expectations and performance than evaluative feedback, whereas feedback had a relatively greater effect on the childrens self-evaluations. Locus of control was significantly related both to expectations and performance ...

Applicability of the group personality projective test within a prison population

Administered the Group Personality Projective Test (GPPT) to 60 male offenders incarcerated in a state penitentiary. A board of 10 prisoners selected inmates who clearly had demonstrated one of three patterns of assaultive behavior: undercontrolled aggressives, overcontrolled aggressives, and over controlled psychopaths. A control group was chosen randomly from the prison population, as well. Results failed to support the hypothesis that GPPT scores significantly differ among relatively homogeneous prisoner subgroups or between these groups and the control group of non-assaultive prisoners.