Elizabeth Spencer Kelley

Building a Tier 2 Intervention: A Glimpse behind the Data.

This article highlights the development process and data-driven decisions that characterized a 5-year iterative process of development and evaluation of a Tier 2 early language curriculum, Story Friends. This curriculum was specifically designed to be effective and feasible for high fidelity implementation in preschool settings. Vocabulary and comprehension lessons were embedded within storybooks. The stories and lessons were prerecorded so adults could easily administer the intervention to groups of three or four children. The development and selection of stories, intervention targets, instructional components, measurement schemes, and training materials were improved in response to data and feedback from an array of implementers. A series of research designs were used as the intervention was scaled up as warranted by efficacy results. The process of iterative development and refinement described in this article is one that is needed to avoid premature and expensive evaluations of underdeveloped treatments that too often produce weak intervention effects.

Efficacy of a Supplemental Phonemic Awareness Curriculum to Instruct Preschoolers With Delays in Early Literacy Development

Purpose Children who do not develop early literacy skills, especially phonological awareness (PA) and alphabet knowledge, prior to kindergarten are at risk for reading difficulties. We investigated a supplemental curriculum with children demonstrating delays in these skills. Method A cluster randomized design with 104 preschool-age children in 39 classrooms was used to determine the efficacy of a supplemental PA curriculum, PAth to Literacy. The curriculum consists of 36 daily scripted 10-min lessons with interactive games designed to teach PA and alphabet skills. A vocabulary intervention (Story Friends), which also uses a small-group format, served as the comparison condition. Results Multilevel modeling indicated that children in the experimental condition demonstrated significantly greater gains on the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) First Sound Fluency (Dynamic Measurement Group, 2006) and Word Parts Fluency (Kaminski & Powell-Smith, 2011) measures. Educational relevance was evident: 82% of the children in the experimental condition met the kindergarten benchmark for First Sound Fluency compared with 34% of the children in the comparison condition. Teachers reported overall satisfaction with the lessons. Conclusions Results indicated that the vast majority of children demonstrating early literacy delays in preschool may benefit from a supplemental PA curriculum that has the potential to prevent reading difficulties as children transition to kindergarten.

Embedded Instruction Improves Vocabulary Learning During Automated Storybook Reading Among High-Risk Preschoolers.

PURPOSE We investigated a small-group intervention designed to teach vocabulary and comprehension skills to preschoolers who were at risk for language and reading disabilities. These language skills are important and reliable predictors of later academic achievement. METHOD Preschoolers heard prerecorded stories 3 times per week over the course of a school year. A cluster randomized design was used to evaluate the effects of hearing storybooks with and without embedded vocabulary and comprehension lessons. A total of 32 classrooms were randomly assigned to experimental and comparison conditions. Approximately 6 children per classroom demonstrating low vocabulary knowledge, totaling 195 children, were enrolled. RESULTS Preschoolers in the comparison condition did not learn novel, challenging vocabulary words to which they were exposed in story contexts, whereas preschoolers receiving embedded lessons demonstrated significant learning gains, although vocabulary learning diminished over the course of the school year. Modest gains in comprehension skills did not differ between the two groups. CONCLUSION The Story Friends curriculum appears to be highly feasible for delivery in early childhood educational settings and effective at teaching challenging vocabulary to high-risk preschoolers.

Advances in Multi-tiered Systems of Support for Prekindergarten Children: Lessons Learned from 5 Years of Research and Development from the Center for Response to Intervention in Early Childhood

While response to intervention (RTI) is in widespread use in K–12 programs, it is still an emerging practice in programs serving preschool-aged children. In 2008, the Institute of Education Sciences funded the Center on Response to Intervention in Early Childhood (CRTIEC): (1) to conduct a focused program of research to develop and rigorously evaluate and replicate intensive interventions for preschool language and early literacy skills and (2) to develop and validate an assessment system linked to these interventions. This chapter briefly describes some of the differences between preschool and K–12 educational settings and examines some of the challenges to implementing RTI in light of these contextual differences. Lessons learned and implications derived from a multisite study of the quality of early literacy in tier 1 across preschool programs are outlined along with programmatic research carried out to develop tier 2 and tier 3 language and literacy interventions, and measures for identifying and monitoring the progress of children needing additional tiers of support in these interventions. Also described are a specific investigation of children who are dual language learners and annual surveys of states showing a growing trend in the implementation of RTI programs and policies for preschool-aged children.

Systematic Replication of the Effects of a Supplementary, Technology-Assisted, Storybook Intervention for Preschool Children with Weak Vocabulary and Comprehension Skills

In 2013, Spencer, Goldstein, Sherman, et al. reported the promising effects of a supplemental, technology-assisted, storybook intervention (Tier 2) containing embedded instruction targeting the oral language learning of preschool children at risk for delays. We sought to advance knowledge of the intervention by replicating it in a new sample and examining children’s responses to the narrator’s instructional prompts and associations with learning outcomes. Results indicated that children were highly successful in responding with the narrator’s task-management prompts (i.e., turn the page), particularly after the first book. Children were much less proficient in correctly responding to the narrator’s word-teaching prompts (i.e., “say enormous”), but improved over additional storybooks. Exposure to the intervention accelerated children’s weekly oral language learning, and effect sizes were comparable to those of Spencer et al. Children’s increased word knowledge was positively correlated with their correct responding to the narrator’s word-teaching prompts in particular. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Word Learning and Story Comprehension From Digital Storybooks Does Interaction Make a Difference

An emerging body of research examines language learning of young children from experiences with digital storybooks, but little is known about the ways in which specific components of digital storybooks, including interactive elements, may influence language learning. The purpose of the study was to examine the incidental word learning and story comprehension of preschool children after interactions with interactive and noninteractive versions of a digital storybook. Thirty preschool children were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions: interactive in which the story text was presented aloud and interactive features were present and not interactive in which the story text was presented aloud with no interactive features. After three sessions with the digital storybook, no group differences were observed between conditions on measures of word learning or story comprehension. Children in both groups demonstrated some learning of new words; however, gains were minimal, approximately one new word per child. This study contributes preliminary data to indicate that interactive components of digital storybooks may not be sufficient to facilitate language learning. Instruction, rather than incidental exposure, is likely necessary for meaningful language learning from digital storybooks.

A Curriculum-Based Measure of Language Comprehension for Preschoolers: Reliability and Validity of the Assessment of Story Comprehension.

Despite research demonstrating the importance of language comprehension to later reading abilities, curriculum-based measures to assess language comprehension abilities in preschoolers remain lacking. The Assessment of Story Comprehension (ASC) features brief, child-relevant stories and a series of literal and inferential questions with a focus on causal and predictive inference skills surrounding the main story grammar components and a novel vocabulary word. Following an overview of the iterative development process and pilot studies, this article presents preliminary evidence of the fidelity of administration, reliability of scoring, alternate form reliability, and validity of the ASC. In all, 237 preschoolers, ages 3 to 5 years old, participated in this study. Fidelity of administration and scoring reliability averaged over 90%. Concurrent validity with two established language measures revealed correlations ranging from .67 to .81. Test–retest reliability and internal consistency also indicated high levels of reliability for this new tool; however, alternate form reliability results suggest further work is needed. Preliminary results indicate that the ASC holds promise as a viable curriculum-based measure that early childhood educators can use for monitoring preschoolers’ progress in language comprehension.

Predicting Response to Treatment in a Tier 2 Supplemental Vocabulary Intervention

Purpose To effectively implement a response to intervention approach, there is a need for timely and specific information about student learning in response to treatment to ensure that treatment decisions are appropriate. This exploratory study examined responsivity to a supplemental, Tier 2 vocabulary intervention delivered to preschool children with limited language abilities. Method A secondary analysis of a cluster-randomized trial of a supplemental vocabulary intervention was conducted. Responsivity (e.g., adequate learning) to the intervention was examined, and learning in the 1st few weeks of intervention was evaluated as a possible predictor of response to intervention. Results Using a criterion of learning of 20% of target vocabulary, nearly one third of participants were identified as poor responders. A 1st unit benchmark was identified that maximized the sensitivity to identification of children who were likely to respond to the intervention. Conclusions Even for generally effective interventions, there is likely to be a substantial proportion of children who are not responsive. Learning in the 1st few weeks of intervention may be a useful indicator of appropriate response to treatment and could inform instructional decisions.

Measuring Explicit Word Learning of Preschool Children: A Development Study

Purpose The purpose of this article is to present preliminary results related to the development of a new measure of explicit word learning. The measure incorporated elements of explicit vocabulary instruction and dynamic assessment and was designed to be sensitive to differences in word learning skill and to be feasible for use in clinical settings. Method The explicit word learning measure included brief teaching trials and repeated fine-grained measurement of semantic knowledge and production of 3 novel words (2 verbs and 1 adjective). Preschool children (N = 23) completed the measure of explicit word learning; standardized, norm-referenced measures of expressive and receptive vocabulary; and an incidental word learning task. Results The measure of explicit word learning provided meaningful information about word learning. Performance on the explicit measure was related to existing vocabulary knowledge and incidental word learning. Conclusions Findings from this development study indicate that further examination of the measure of explicit word learning is warranted. The measure may have the potential to identify children who are poor word learners. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5170738.