Elliot Aronson

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: A Current Perspective1

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on theory of cognitive dissonance. The proliferation of research testing and extending dissonance theory results for the most part from the generality and simplicity of the theory. Although it has been applied primarily in social psychological settings, it is not limited to social psychological phenomena such as interpersonal relations or feelings toward a communicator and his communication. Rather, its domain is in the widest of places—the skull of an individual organism. The core notion of the theory is extremely simple: Dissonance is a negative drive state that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent. The very simplicity of the core of the theory is its greatest strength and most serious weakness. Many of the hypotheses that are obvious derivations from the theory are unique to that theory—that is, they could not be derived from any other theory. One of the intriguing aspects of dissonance theory is that it frequently leads to predictions that stand in apparent contradiction to those made by other theoretical approaches, most notably, to a general reward-incentive theory. The implication of the chapter is that dissonant situations are ubiquitous and that man expends a great deal of time and energy attempting to reduce dissonance. It should be obvious that man does many other things as well.

The influence of the character of the criminal and his victim on the decisions of simulated jurors

Abstract In two separate experiments subjects read a standardized description of a crime of negligent automobile homicide. In both Experiments I and II, the victim of the crime was presented to approximately one-half of the subjects as an unattractive person (Unattractive Victim condition) and to the other half of the subjects as an attractive person (Attractive Victim condition). In Experiment II the character of the defendant was also varied: he was described to some subjects as an attractive person, to some as an unattractive person, and to others as a “neutral” person. The actual circumstances of the crime were, of course, identical for all subjects. The subjects were requested to sentence the defendant to a specific number of years of imprisonment according to their own personal judgment. As predicted, the results of both Experiments I and II showed that subjects in the Attractive Victim conditions tended to sentence the defendant to a greater number of years of imprisonment than subjects in the Unattractive Victim conditions. In Experiment II, subjects in the Unattractive Defendant condition sentenced the defendant more severely than subjects in either the Attractive or Neutral Defendant conditions.

On increasing the persuasiveness of a low prestige communicator

Abstract It has often been demonstrated that subjects will assume that a high prestige communicator is a more expert and honest person than is a low prestige communicator. Consequently, a high prestige communicator is usually assumed to be more effective in convincing others of any opinion he advocates than is a low prestige communicator. In this paper we proposed that the abstract credibility of a communicator is not the sole determinant of potential effectiveness. We proposed that any communicator, regardless of his prestige, will be more effective and will be seen as more credible when he is arguing for a position opposed to his own best interest. than when arguing for changes obviously in his own best interest. (Thus, in some cases, a low prestige source could be extremely effective—in fact, even more effective than a high prestige communicator.) Two experiments were conducted. Both experiments supported the above hypothesis.

Similarity versus liking as determinants of interpersonal attractiveness

In a 2 by 2 design, Ss were led to believe that a person with whom they had interacted either liked them or disliked them and that his attitudes on several issues were either similar or dissimilar to the S’s own attitudes. The results indicated that “liking” had a significant effect upon the S’s feelings for the other person — regardless of attitude similarity or dissimilarity. The results were discussed in terms of a possible alternative explanation for the bulk of the data showing a positive relationship between attitude similarity and interpersonal attraction.

The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness

An experiment was performed which demonstrated that the attractiveness of a superior person is enhanced if he commits a clumsy blunder; the same blunder tends to decrease the the attractiveness of a mediocre person. We predicted these results by conjecturing that a superior person may be viewed as superhuman and, therefore, distant; a blunder tends to. humanize him and, consequently, increases his attractiveness.

The cooperative subject: Myth or reality?

Abstract A number of researchers have suggested that cooperativeness on the part of subjects in supporting the hypotheses of experimenters yields artifactual data in some social psychological experiments. An experiment was conducted to examine the nature of this cooperation. We predicted that cooperativeness, per se , would not manifest itself when the subjects own ends would be better sats-fied by not cooperating. Forty subjects were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions or a control condition. In the experimental conditions, subjects were led to believe that they knew the experimenters specific hypothesis. In two of these conditions the subject could confirm the experimenters hypothesis and also “look good.” In the third experimental condition these outcomes were mutually exclusive. In this third condition the subjects chose to “look good,” thereby disconfirming the experimenters “hypothesis.” Thus, the results supported our prediction. Subsequently the control condition was replicated and a condition in which subjects knew the broad nature, but not the specifics of the experimenters hypothesis, was added. The results again provided evidence for the hypothesis that subjects try to “look good.”

Liking for an evaluator as a function of her physical attractiveness and nature of the evaluations

Abstract The relationship between physical attractiveness and liking was investigated in a 2 × 2 factorial design. The physical attractiveness (attractive versus unattractive) of an evaluator and the nature of her evaluation (positive versus negative) were manipulated, and the effects of these manipulations examined. We found, as predicted, a significant interaction: the attractive evaluator who was positive was liked most, while the attractive evaluator who presented a negative evaluation was liked least. Between these two extremes, liking was greater for the unattractive-positive evaluator than the unattractive-negative evaluator.

Opinion change and the gain-loss model of interpersonal attraction

Abstract Aronson and Linder 1965 demonstrated that a gain in esteem resulted in greater liking for an evaluator than did constant positive esteem. Similarly, a loss in esteem lead to less liking for the evaluator than did invariate negative esteem. The present experiment attempted to apply these findings to the area of opinion change. Our hypothesis was that the greatest amount of agreement with the communicator would be produced by a communicator who had previously expressed a gain in esteem for the recipient. The extent of agreement would be next highest in the case of constant positive esteem, followed by invariate negative esteem, with loss in esteem producing the least agreement. The results supported the hypothesis.

Effect of expectancy of task duration on the experience of fatigue

Abstract If a person is performing a fatiguing task and firmly expects that he must continue for a great length of time, feelings of extreme fatigue will have unpleasant consequences: Either he will terminate the task, or he will be miserable while completing it. Consequently, in order to avoid unpleasantness, people will suppress feelings of fatigue until their task is virtually complete, when they should experience a sharp increase in fatigue—since such feelings are no longer troublesome. In an experiment, subjects performed a series of fatiguing tasks. After a given number of tasks, those individuals who were led to believe that their chore was virtually at an end reported a greater increase in fatigue than those who expected that they must continue for a longer period of time.

Further steps beyond Parkinson's Law: A replication and extension of the excess time effect

Abstract Subjects were “accidentally” allowed either five or fifteen minutes to perform a task which could be completed in five minutes. Subjects who were allowed excess time spent a significantly greater amount of time actually working on the task than those allowed minimum time, thus demonstrating Parkinsons Law—that work expands to fill the time available. Subsequently, subjects were presented with a second task which was either identical to, similar to, or different from the initial task. Of the subjects given the identical task, those who had been allowed excess time on the initial task chose to spend a greater amount of time performing the second task than those initially allowed minimum time. Thus, Aronson and Gerards 1966 demonstration of the excess time effect was replicated. The design also permitted a test of the extent to which this effect generalized to dissimilar tasks as well as a test of a dissonance interpretation of the effect. Results regarding these last two aims were suggestive but inconclusive.