Elsy Verhofstadt

Testing Karasek's learning and strain hypotheses on young workers in their first job

Abstract This study tests the core hypotheses of Karaseks job demand-control model: high job demands (workload) in combination with low job control (autonomy) increase strains (job dissatisfaction; strain hypothesis), whereas high job demands in combination with high job control increase learning and development in the job (here: learning new skills in the first job; learning hypothesis). These hypotheses are tested in two ways: (a) the mere combination of both job characteristics is associated with the expected outcomes, and (b) a statistical interaction between both job characteristics in predicting the outcomes is expected. A large dataset (n=2,212) of young workers in their first job was used to test all hypotheses. As young workers are presumably still in the process of adjusting themselves to their work environment, we expected that the effects of work characteristics on work outcomes would be stronger for this group than for more experienced workers. The results confirm both the strain and the learning hypothesis. We found a combined effect of both job characteristics, as well as a statistical interaction between both variables. The lowest level of job satisfaction was found in the “high strain” job, whereas the highest increase in skills was found in the “active” job. The consequences of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Higher educated workers: better jobs but less satisfied?

Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to clarify the mixed empirical results concerning the association between educational level and job satisfaction. It seeks to test whether the positive relationship between educational level and job satisfaction is caused by indicators of job quality. Design/methodology/approach – Three models are estimated. In the first model, the impact of the educational level on job satisfaction is examined using an ordinal regression analysis. The second model estimates the impact of the educational level on indicators of job quality, using the appropriate technique (OLS or binary logit). The third model reveals the “true” impact of the educational level on job satisfaction, when the job quality indicators are added as independent variables. Survey data on Flemish youth in their first job are used. Findings – The results show that higher educated workers are more satisfied than their lower educated counterparts, because they have a job of better quality. When one controls for all job characteristics, a negative relationship appears, with higher educated workers reporting less job satisfaction. Research limitations/implications – The hypothesis is only tested for a sample of Flemish youth in their first job (cross-sectional data). Practical implications – Future empirical studies on job satisfaction should include indicators for job quality, in order to reveal the true effect of educational level on job satisfaction. Investing in the job quality of lower educated young workers might boost their job satisfaction and as a consequence also their productivity. Originality/value – Suggests that the diverging results concerning the relationship between educational level and job satisfaction could be due to insufficient control for indicators of job quality.

Is Temporary Employment a Stepping Stone for Unemployed School Leavers

Many school-leavers enter the labour market via temporary employment. In this paper we investigate the impact of a temporary employment spell at the start of the career on the transition rate into permanent employment. We compare the case of temporary employment to the hypothetical case of a direct transition from unemployment to permanent employment. In order to control for selective participation in temporary employment we include a large set of explanatory variables which have been especially collected to study school-leavers. We apply the AIC-information criterion to select the appropriate specification for unobserved heterogeneity. Based on the information criteria we conclude that given our data, there is no support for a model with selection in unobserved characteristics. Simulation exercises provide insights into the development of the effect of temporary employment over time. For a sample of unemployed Flemish school-leavers we find that in the short run temporary employment delays the school leaver’s transition to permanent employment. However, in the long run temporary employment acts as a stepping stone and decreases the duration until permanent employment.

Labour Market Discrimination Against Former Juvenile Delinquents: Evidence from a Field Experiment

In view of policy action to integrate ex-offenders into society, it is important to identify the underlying mechanisms of the negative relationship between criminal record on the one hand and later employment and earnings on the other hand. In this study, we identify hiring discrimination against former juvenile delinquents in a direct way. To this end, we conduct a field experiment in the Belgian labour market. We find that labour market discrimination is indeed a major barrier in the transition to work for former juvenile delinquents. Labour market entrants disclosing a history of juvenile delinquency get about 22% less callback compared to their counterparts without a criminal record. This discrimination is heterogeneous by the occupation for which one applies.

On the moderating role of years of work experience in the Job Demand–Control model

The present study allows for a more flexible Job Demand–Control model by introducing years of work experience as a contextual factor (i.e. moderator). Building on the processes of adaptation and diminishing returns to learning-by-doing, the authors assumed that the relationships between job demands, job control and strain versus learning decrease with the number of years an individual has been working (i.e. years of work experience). Hypotheses were tested using data from Flemish workers during their first years on the labour market (N = 3158). The authors accounted for unobserved individual heterogeneity by means of panel data techniques. Results revealed that the impact of control on both strain and learning decreased with years of work experience (i.e. main effect). The authors also found a significant three-way interaction effect between demands, control and years of work experience for both strain and learning, in line with their expectations.

Overeducation and job satisfaction: the role of job demands and control

Purpose - – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how job demands and control contribute to the relationship between overeducation and job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach - – The analysis is based on data for Belgian young workers up to the age of 26. The authors execute regression analyses, with autonomy, quantitative demands and job satisfaction as dependent variables. The authors account for unobserved individual heterogeneity by means of panel-data techniques. Findings - – The results reveal a significant role of demands and control for the relationship between overeducation and job satisfaction. At career start, overeducated workers have less control than adequately educated individuals with similar skills levels, but more control than adequately educated employees doing similar work. Moreover, their control increases faster over the career than that of adequately educated workers with a similar educational background. Finally, demands have less adverse effects on satisfaction for high-skilled workers, irrespective of their match, while control moderates the negative satisfaction effect of overeducation. Research limitations/implications - – Future research should look beyond the early career and focus on other potential compensation mechanisms for overeducation. Also the role of underlying mechanisms, such as job crafting, deserves more attention. Practical implications - – The results suggest that providing more autonomy is an effective strategy to avoid job dissatisfaction among overeducated workers. Originality/value - – The study connects two areas of research, namely, that on overeducation and its consequences and that on the role of job demands and control for workers’ well-being. The results contribute to a better understanding why overeducation persists. Moreover, they are consistent with the hypothesis that employers hire overeducated workers because they require less monitoring and are more able to cope with demands, although more direct evidence on this is needed.

A good or bad transition from school to work: who is responsible?

Purpose - – The purpose of this paper is to analyse the determinants of the quality of the first job in Flanders (Belgium). The authors differentiate between circumstances on the one hand – individual characteristics beyond the control of the individuals such as gender or the unemployment rate at labour market entry – and efforts on the other hand – characteristics that are at least partly under the individuals’ control such as their educational attainment or labour motivation. The authors specifically take into account the fact that the former might influence the latter. A better understanding of the effects of these determinants can help to formulate (labour market) policy proposals (to ameliorate the school-to-work transition) that are responsibility-sensitive. The authors use the distance function to construct a one-dimensional measure of job quality – based on a list of job characteristics – and explain the variation in job quality in terms of circumstances and efforts. The empirical analysis is based on the 1978 birth cohort of the Flemish SONAR data. The results show that the quality of the first job is to a large extent depending on personal efforts and that circumstances have a considerable influence on the efforts. For this reason circumstances influence job quality twice. This is especially the case for gender and for the educational attainment of the individual’s mother. The labour market situation at labour market entry also plays a considerable role. Design/methodology/approach - – The authors use the distance function to construct a one-dimensional measure of job quality – based on a list of job characteristics – and explain the variation in job quality in terms of circumstances and efforts. The empirical analysis is based on the 1978 birth cohort of the Flemish SONAR data. Findings - – The results show that circumstances have a considerable influence on the efforts and for this reason circumstances influence job quality twice. This is especially the case for gender and for the educational attainment of the individual’s mother. The labour market situation at labour market entry also plays a considerable role. Originality/value - – The paper contributes to the literature in several ways. First, it analyses the quality of the first job individuals get after leaving school and uses an equality of opportunity framework. This approach differs from an approach based on search duration or job satisfaction. Second, job quality is evaluated in a multidimensional way using the distance function. Third, the relation between job quality and circumstances – issues for which the individual is not responsible – and efforts – issues for which the individual is at least partly responsible – is investigated. The authors specifically take into account the fact that circumstances might influence efforts and investigate the consequences for labour market policy.

The Environmental Impact of Individual Behavior: Self-Assessment Versus the Ecological Footprint:

Are individuals able to self-assess the environmental impact of their behavior? To answer this question, we first analyze the different behavioral determinants of the ecological footprint (EF), an often used measure of an individual’s environmental impact. Second, we compare the individuals’ EF with self-assessments of their own environmental impact (self-assessed environmental sustainability [SAES]). We use survey data from Belgium and find that people are largely unaware of the environmental impact they have, as the correlation between the EF and the SAES is small. Finally, we find that SAES reflects, to a large extent, individuals’ attitudes toward the environment, whereas the EF is mainly explained by sociodemographic characteristics.