Emily Fargher

Current use of pharmacogenetic testing : a national survey of thiopurine methyltransferase testing prior to azathioprine prescription

Background:  Azathioprine is an immunosuppressant prescribed for the treatment of inflammatory conditions and after organ transplantation. Risk of neutropaenia has limited the effective use of azathioprine (AZA) and driven requirements for careful monitoring and blood tests. Thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) is a genetically moderated key enzyme involved in the metabolism of AZA that can be used to stratify individuals into different levels of risk of developing neutropaenia. Two techniques can be used to measure TPMT status: enzyme‐level testing (phenotype testing) and DNA based testing (genotype testing).

A pragmatic randomized controlled trial of thiopurine methyltransferase genotyping prior to azathioprine treatment: the TARGET study.

AIM To conduct a pragmatic, randomized controlled trial to assess whether thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) genotyping prior to azathioprine reduces adverse drug reactions (ADRs). METHODS A total of 333 participants were randomized 1:1 to undergo TPMT genotyping prior to azathioprine or to commence treatment without genotyping. RESULTS There was no difference in the primary outcome of stopping azathioprine due to an adverse reaction (ADR, p = 0.59) between the two study arms. ADRs were more common in older patients (p = 0.01). There was no increase in stopping azathioprine due to ADRs in TPMT heterozygotes compared with wild-type individuals. The single individual with TPMT variant homozygosity experienced severe neutropenia. CONCLUSION Our work supports the strong evidence that individuals with TPMT variant homozygosity are at high risk of severe neutropenia, whereas TPMT heterozygotes are not at increased risk of ADRs at standard doses of azathioprine.

Valuing pharmacogenetic testing services: A comparison of patients' and health care professionals' preferences

OBJECTIVE The study compared the preferences of patients and health-care professionals for the key attributes of a pharmacogenetic testing service to identify a patients risk of developing a side effect (neutropenia) from the immunosuppressant, azathioprine. METHODS A discrete choice experiment was posted to a sample of patients (n=309) and health-care professionals (HCPs) (n=410), as part of the TARGET study. Five attributes, with four levels each, described the service as follows: level of information given; predictive ability of the test; how the sample is collected; turnaround time for a result; who explains the test result. Data from each sample were first analyzed separately and responses were compared by 1) identifying the impact of the scale parameter, and 2) estimating marginal rates of substitution. RESULTS The final analysis included 159 patients and 138 HCPs (50% & 34% response rates). Estimated attribute coefficients from the patient and HCP sample differed in size, after taking into account the impact of the scale parameter. Patients and HCPs had similar preferences for predictive accuracy of the test and were willing to wait 2 days for a 1% improvement in test accuracy. Patients preferred to obtain more information and were willing to wait 19 days compared to 8 days for HCPs for providing higher levels of information. CONCLUSIONS Patients demanded accurate and timely information from health-care professionals about why it was necessary to have a pharmacogenetic test and what the test results mean. In contrast, health-care professionals appear to focus more exclusively or entirely upon the predictive accuracy and waiting time for a test result.

Is shared care with annual hospital review better value for money than predominantly hospital-based care in patients with established stable rheumatoid arthritis?

Objective: To assess the cost effectiveness and cost effectiveness acceptability of symptom control delivered by shared care (SCSC) and aggressive treatment delivered in hospital (ATH) for established rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methods: Economic data were collected within the British Rheumatoid Outcome Study Group randomised controlled trial of SCSC and ATH. A broad perspective was used (UK National Health Service, social support services and patients). Cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) gained, net benefit statistics and cost effectiveness acceptability curves were estimated. Costs and outcomes were discounted at 3.5%. Sensitivity analysis tested the robustness of the results to analytical assumptions. Results: The mean (SD) cost per person was £4540 (4700) in the SCSC group and £4440 (4900) in the ATH group. The mean (SD) QALYs per person for 3 years were 1.67 (0.56) in the SCSC group and 1.60 (0.60) in the ATH group. If decision makers are prepared to pay ⩾£2000 to gain 1 QALY, SCSC is likely to be cost effective in 60–90% of cases. Conclusions: The primary economic analysis and sensitivity analyses indicate that SCSC is likely to be more cost effective than ATH in 60–90% of cases. This result seems to be robust to assumptions required by the analysis. This study is one of a limited number of randomised controlled trials to collect detailed resource use and health status data and estimate the costs and QALYs of treatment for established RA. This trial is one of the largest RA studies to use the EuroQol.

Preferences of people with diabetes for diabetic retinopathy screening: a discrete choice experiment

Diabet. Med. 29, 869–877 (2012)

Using discrete choice experiments to define patient preferences for outcomes in trials

Methods Web-based survey, containing discrete choice experiments (DCEs) to elicit preferences of three pre-defined groups of adults with epilepsy (n=750): (i) early epilepsy, (ii) established epilepsy, (iii) women of childbearing age (WOCBA). The DCEs contains five attributes, with two levels, defined using: semi-structured interviews with patients (n=56), a focus group with AED prescribers (n=8), and trial data. Each used the same fractional factorial design, folded into eight binary choices: Which medication would you prefer to take? Target sample size is 750 respondents, recruited via the Epilepsy Action website. Data will be analysed in STATA using a random effects logit model.